| 单词 | 拉丁 |
| 释义 | 〔pretzel〕It is probably well known or widely assumed thatpretzel is a German word, since the food seems traditionally German, but the word ultimately has a Latin origin.The German wordBrezel or Pretzel, which was borrowed into English (first being recorded in American English in a newspaper of March 1856) goes back to the assumed Medieval Latin word brāchitellum. This would accord with the storythat a monk living in France or northern Italy first created the knotted shape of a pretzel,even though this type of biscuit had been enjoyed by the Romans.The monk wanted to symbolize arms folded in a prayer,hence the name derived from Latinbracchiātus, "having branches,” itself frombracchium, "branch, arm.” 可能象大家所熟知的或认定的那样，因为这种食品好象是德国的传统食品，所以大家认为pretzel 是个德语词， 但实际上这个词源于拉丁语。德语词Brezel 或 Pretzel 被借入英语（首次以美式英语记录于1856年3月的新闻报刊）可追溯到中世纪的拉丁词 brachitellum 。 这可能是与这个故事是一致的：一位住在法国或意大利北部的修士首创了这种节状的椒盐饼，尽管这种饼干很受罗马人的欢迎。那位修士想要象征祈祷者交叠的手臂，因此这个名字来源于拉丁语bracchiatus， 意为“有枝干的，” 该词本身又是由bracchium “枝干，手臂”演变而来的 〔senarius〕A Latin verse consisting of six iambic feet.拉丁六音步诗：包括六个音步的拉丁诗歌包括六个，六音步诗〔vulgate〕Vulgate Abbr. Vulg.,Vul.The Latin edition or translation of the Bible made by Saint Jerome at the end of the fourth centurya.d. , now used in a revised form as the Roman Catholic authorized version. Vulgate 缩写 Vulg.,Vul.拉丁语圣经：公元 4世纪末期圣杰隆所著圣经的拉丁版本或译本，现在其重修版本为罗马天主教认可的版本 〔enchiridion〕-idion [diminutive suff] -idion [拉丁小后缀] 〔mediterranean〕When one hears the wordmediterranean, one thinks of a specific placeand perhaps of the great cultures that have surrounded it.But the word can also apply to any large body of water that is surrounded completely or almost completely by dry land.This usage goes back to the use in Late Latin of the Latin wordmediterrāneus, the source of our word,as part of the nameMediterrāneum mare for the mostly landlocked Mediterranean Sea. But Latinmediterrāneus, which is derived from medius, "the middle of, the heart of,” and terra, "land,” in Classical Latin actually meant "remote from the coast, inland.”In Late Latin,in referring to the sea,mediterrāneus probably meant originally "in the middle of the earth"rather than "surrounded by land,”for to the Mediterranean cultures without knowledge of much of the earth,the Mediterranean Sea was in the center of the world.Our wordmediterranean is first recorded in English in 1594 as the name of the sea.当一个人听说mediterranean 这个词时， 他所想到的是一具体的地方，而且可能还想到了这个地方周围的那些伟大文明。但这个词同样可以用来指任何几乎被陆地所包围或完全被陆地所包围的大水体。这个用法可以追溯到近代拉丁文中mediterraneus 这个词， 就是我们这个词的词源，亦即表绝大部分被陆地所包围的地中海的名称Mediterraneum mare 的组成部分。 但是拉丁词mediterraneus ，从 medius 意为“…中间的，…的中心”派生而来的，以及意为“陆地”的 terra 这个词， 在古典拉丁语中的确切含义为“远离海岸的，内陆的”。在近代拉丁语中，当mediterraneus 这个词用来指地中海时， 其最早的含义可能是“在地球中央的”，而不是“被陆地所包围的”，因为对于缺乏有关地球知识的各地中海文明来说，地中海就是世界的中心。我们这里所说的英语单词mediterranean 最早于1594年出现于英语中， 也是用来指地中海〔bumpkin〕The termbumpkin may at one time have been directed at an entire people rather than that segment of the population living in a rural area. The first recorded appearance of the word in 1570 is glossed by the Latin wordBatavus, "Dutchman,” thus making plausible the suggestion thatbumpkin may come from either the Middle Dutch word bommekijn, "little barrel,” or the Flemish word boomken, "shrub.” The connection would be between a squat object and the short, rotund figure of the Dutchman in the popular imagination.Any bumpkin would surely prefer this etymology to another suggestion thatbumpkin is a derivative of bum, "the rear end.” 单词bumpkin 有一个时期意指住在乡下的所有人而不是其中的一部分， 这个词于1570年第一次出现是用拉丁词Batavus “荷兰人”注解的。 使得下面这个解释似乎是说得通的，即bumpkin 有可能起源于中古荷兰词语 bommekijn “小圆桶”的意思，或起源于法兰德斯语 boomken “灌木”的意思。 这两者之间的联系在一般的想象中就如同一个矮胖的物体同圆胖的荷兰人间的关系。而任何一个乡下人都确信无疑这个词源有另一个解释，即bumphin 是从 bum 演变而来的，该词的意思是“尾部末梢” 〔menu〕An enormous menu might be considered an oxymoronif one were to restrict the word etymologically.Menu can be traced back to the Latin word minūtus, meaning "small in size, amount, or degree"and also "possessing or involving minute knowledge.”Latinminūtus became Old French menut and Modern French menu, "small, fine, trifling, minute.” The French adjective came to be used as a nounwith the sense of "detail, details collectively,” and "detailed list.”As such, it was used in the phrasemenu de repas, "list of items of a meal,” which was shortened tomenu. This word was borrowed into English,being first recorded in 1837.The French word had been borrowed before,perhaps only briefly,as a shortening of the French phrasemenu peuple, "the common people.” This usage, however, is recorded in only one text, in 1658.“一个庞大的菜单”这一说法可能会被看成是一种矛盾的修辞法，如果人们从语源学角度对这个词进行限制的话。Menu 这个词的词源可上溯到拉丁词 minutus， 意为“尺寸、数量或程度小的”，或者“具备或涉及到精细知识的。”这个拉丁词minutus 而后又成为古法语单词 menut 和现代法语单词 menu， 意为“小的、精巧的、琐碎的、详细的。” 这个法语形容词逐渐被用作名词，意为“细节、诸多细节”及“详细的名单”。就这样，它被用于词组menu de repas， 意为“一张菜肴明细单”， 后来这个词组又被简略为menu。 这个简略词被引入英语中，最早出现于1837年。这个法语单词以前也曾被英语借用过，但也许只用了很短一段时间，而且是作为意为“普通民众”的法语词组menu peuple 的简略词。 然而这一用法仅在1658年的一篇文章中出现过〔absquatulate〕The vibrant energy of American English sometimes appears in the use of Latin affixes to create jocular pseudo-Latin "learned" words.There is a precedent for this in the language of Shakespeare,whose plays contain scores of made-up Latinate words.Midlandabsquatulate has a prefix ab-, "away from,” and a suffix-ate, "to act upon in a specified manner,” affixed to a nonexistent base form-squatul-, probably suggested bysquat. Hence the whimsicalabsquatulate, "to squat away from.” Another such coinage is Northernbusticate, which joins bust with -icate by analogy with verbs like medicate. Southernargufy joins argue to a redundant -fy, "to make; cause to become.” These creations are largely confined to regions of the United States where change is slow,and where the 19th-century love for Latinate words and expressions is still manifest.For example, Appalachian speech is characterized by the frequent use ofrecollect, aggravate, oblige, and other such words. 美国英语的创造力有时表现在用拉丁文词缀去创造滑稽的假拉丁文“文雅”的单词。莎士比亚的语言是一先行者，他的戏剧中有大量创造出来的拉丁词。中部地区的absquatulate 有一前缀 ab-， 表“离开，走开，” 和一个后缀-ate， 表“以特殊方式行事，” 这些再加在一个不存在的词根上-squatul-， 也许是由squat 而来的。 所以奇特的absquatulate 表“走开，离开。” 另外一个这样的造词是从北部的busticate 来的，这是把 bust 加上 -icate 变来的，如同源动词 medicate。 南部的argufy 把 argue 加上多余的 -fy， 意为“变成；使成为”。 这种造词只见于美国变化较慢的地区，在那儿仍保持了19世纪那种喜好拉丁语词语的习惯。比如在阿巴拉契亚地区的语言中，如同recollect，aggravate，oblige 和其他这样一些词经常被使用的 〔coupon〕A Roman might have had difficulty predicting what would become of the Latin wordcolaphus, which meant "a blow with the fist.” In Old French, a language that developed from Latin,Late Latincolpus, from Latin colaphus, became colp, or modern French coup, with the same sense. Coup has had a rich development in French, gaining numerous senses, participating in numerous phrases,such ascoup d'état (a term that we have borrowed), and giving rise to many derivatives, includingcouper, "to cut; literally, to divide with a blow or stroke.” Couper yielded the word coupon, "a portion that is cut off,” which came to refer to a certificate that was detachable from a principal certificate.The detachable certificate could be exchanged for interest or dividend payments by the holder of the principal certificate.Coupon is first recorded in English in 1822 with this sense and then came to apply to forms or tickets, detachable or otherwise,that could be exchanged for various benefits or used to request information.罗马人大概很难想象拉丁词colaphus 意为“拳头的一击”所发生的变化。 在由拉丁文发展而来的古法语中，由拉丁词colaphus 转变为后期拉丁文中的 colpus ，变为了 colp 或现代法语中的 coup ，意思未变。 Coup 在法语中变化发展很多， 具有了许多意思，组成了许多短语，如coup d'ètat （英语中已借用的单词），并生成许多派生词， 包括couper “切；字面上的意思是用一击或一打使分开。” Couper 又产生了 coupon 一词，意思是“切掉的一部分”， 并且还用来指可从主要证书中分开的票证。这个可分票证可以由主证书的持有者为得利息或分期付款进行交换。Coupon 有这个意思的最早记录是在1882年， 然后被用来指格式或门票，可分离的或其他样式，它可以用来交换不同的利益或用来获取信息〔Latin〕Of, relating to, or composed in Latin:拉丁的：拉丁语的，关于拉丁语的，或用拉丁文写的：〔trivial〕Trivial Pursuit is an etymologically sound name, because roads and traveling, which might involve pursuit, are involved in the origin of the wordtrivial. The history oftrivial begins with the Latin word trivium, formed from the prefixtri-, "consisting of three of the things named,” and via, "road.” Trivium meant "the meeting place of three roads, especially as a place of public resort.” Hence it also had a pejorative sense,which we express by the phrasethe gutter, as in "His manners were formed in the gutter.”The adjectivetriviālis, derived from trivium, meant "appropriate to the street corner, commonplace, vulgar.” Trivial entered Middle English in senses that need not detain us here,first being recorded in a sense identical to that oftriviālis in 1589. Shortly after thattrivial is recorded in the sense most familiar to us, "of little importance or significance.”Trivial Pursuit 从词源学的角度来看是合理的词， 因为可能涉及到追求的道路和旅行都与trivial 这个词的来源有关。 trivial 的历史从拉丁词 trivium 开始， 由前缀tri- 意思是“由三个给定的东西组成的”和 via “道路”构成。 Trivium 的意思是“三条路交汇的地方，尤指公众常去的地方”。 自此它又有了一层带贬意的意思，我们用短语贫民区里的 来表示这层意思， 如在句子”他的礼仪是在贫民区学成的”。从trivium 派生出来的形容词 trvialis 意思为“用于街道角落的，平凡的，粗俗的”。 Trvial 进入了中古英语， 当时的意思不会使我们停止不前。最早的记录是在1589年，意思与trivialis 相同。 不久以后，trivial 的意思变得与我们更接近了， 即“琐碎的，不重要的或无价值的”〔goliard〕A wandering student in medieval Europe disposed to conviviality, license, and the making of ribald and satirical Latin songs.放纵派吟游诗人：在中世纪的欧洲追崇享受和不受拘束的生活，作一些通俗或讽刺的拉丁歌谣的流浪学者〔Gloria〕A Latin doxology beginning with the wordsGloria Patri. 荣耀颂：以Glorio Patri 词开头的拉丁颂歌 〔comrade〕A comrade can be socially or politically close,a closeness that is found at the etymological heart of the wordcomrade. In Spanish the Latin wordcamara, with its Late Latin meaning "chamber, room,” was retained, and the derivativecamarada, with the sense "roommates, especially barrack mates,” was formed. Camarada then came to have the general sense "companion.” English borrowed the word from Spanish and French,Englishcomrade being first recorded in the 16th century. The political sense ofcomrade, now associated with Communism, had its origin in the late-19th-century use of the word as a title by socialists and communists in order to avoid such forms of address asmister. This usage, which originated during the French Revolution,is first recorded in English in 1884.同志在社会或政治关系上是亲密的，这种亲密的意思可以从comrade 的词源中找到。 在西班牙语中，拉丁词camara 仍保留有它的拉丁语意思“小房间，房间”， 同时出现了它的派生词camarada 意思是“室友，尤指同营房的战友”。 接着Camarada 具有了一般“同伴”的意思。 英语从西班牙语和法语中借用了这个词，英语中comrade 第一次出现是在16世纪。 comrade 的政治意义现在是与共产主义相联的， 最初在19世纪末，它是作为社会主义者或共产主义者的前称以区别于mister（先生） 一词的。 这种用法起源于法国大革命时期，第一次在英语中出现则是在1884年。〔dinner〕Eating foods such as pizza and ice cream for breakfastmay be justified by the fact that in Middle Englishdinner meant "breakfast,” as did the Old French worddisner, or diner, which was the source of our word. The Old French word came from the Vulgar Latin word.disiūnāre, meaning "to break one's fast;that is, to eat one's first meal,” a notion also contained in our wordbreakfast. The Vulgar Latin word was derived from an earlier word,.disiēiūnāre, the Latin elements of which aredis-, denoting reversal, and iēiūnium, "fast.” Middle Englishdiner not only meant "breakfast" but, echoing usage of the Old French worddiner, more commonly meant "the first big meal of the day, usually eaten between 9a.m. and noon.” Customs change, however,and over the yearswe have let the chief meal become the last meal of the day,by which timewe have broken our fast more than once.早餐吃些如比萨饼及冰淇淋的食物，既可以被中古英语dinner 表示早餐的事实所证实， 也可被该词的词源——古法语词disner 或 diner 证实。 该法语单词出自于通俗拉丁语单词disiunare ， 其意思是“打破禁食后吃的第一餐饭”，同时也含有breakfast 的概念。 通俗拉丁字出自于更早的字disieiunare ， 其拉丁文构成部分是dis- 表示反面和 ieiunium “禁食”。 中古英语diner 不仅指“早饭”， 还模仿了古法语diner 的用法， 一般指“一天中的第一次大餐，常常在上午 9点到中午之间吃”。 然而习惯改变了，许多年以来，我们常常把一天中的最后一顿饭当作主餐，从那时起，我们已不止一次地打破了禁食〔dirge〕The history of the worddirge illustrates how a word with neutral connotations, such asdirect, can become emotionally charged because of a specialized use. The Latin worddīrige is a form of the verb dīrigere, "to direct, guide,” that is used in uttering commands.In the Office for the Deaddīrige is the first word in the antiphon for the first nocturn of matins. The complete opening words of this antiphon are"Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam,” "Direct, O Lord, my God, my way in thy sight.” The part of the Office for the Dead that begins with this antiphon was namedDīrige in Ecclesiastical Latin, a use ofdirige as an English word that is first recorded in a work possibly written before 1200. Dirige was then extendedto refer to the chanting or reading of the Office for the Deadas part of a funeral or memorial service.In Middle Englishthe word was shortened todirge, although it was pronounced as two syllables.After the Middle Agesthe word took on its more general senses of "a funeral hymn or lament" and "a mournful poem or musical composition"and developed its one-syllable pronunciation.dirge 一词的历史表明一个中性词， 如direct 如何因特殊用法而带上了感情色彩。 拉丁词dirige 是动词 dirigere, “指示，指导”的一种形式， 用于发布命令。在为死者每日七次的祈祷中，dirige 是为第一次宵祷而启应轮流吟唱颂歌的首词。 这个颂歌完整开始语是"Dirige, Domine, Deus meus, in conspectu tuo viam meam,” “指引吧，我的主，我的上帝，您可看到我的行为” 。 以这首颂歌开始的为死者的祈祷部分过去用教会拉丁文被命名为Dirige , dirige 作为英语单词的一种用法， 此词可能第一次被记录在1200年前的作品中。 Dirge 是那时词义的延伸，用来指为死者的祈祷时的唱歌或读经，作为葬礼或纪念的一部分。在中古英语中，该词缩写为dirge ， 尽管它作为两个音节发音。中世纪后，该词有了更广的意义，指“哀乐，挽歌”和“悼念性的诗或其他音乐作品”，并且发展了它的单音节发音〔fool〕The pejorative nature of the termfool is only strengthened by a knowledge of its etymology. Its source, the Latin wordfollis, meant "a bag or sack, a large inflated ball, a pair of bellows.” Users of the word in Late Latin, however, saw a resemblance between the bellows or the inflated ball and a person who was what we would call "a windbag" or "an airhead.”The word, which passed into English by way of French,is first recorded in English in a work written around the beginning of the 13th centurywith the sense "a foolish, stupid, or ignorant person.”词语fool 的轻蔑性质只有用它的语源知识才能体会深刻。 它的词源，拉丁词fillis 意思是“一个袋子，一个大的充气球，一对风箱”。 然而在后期拉丁语中此词使用者发现一个风箱或充气球与一个我们称为“空谈者”或“自大者”之间有相似之处。这个词通过法语传入英语，在英语中最早记录在一本写于大约为13世纪初的书中，意思是“笨的，傻的或愚昧的人”〔period〕An analogous unit or division of classical Greek or Latin prose.诗文的划分：古希腊或拉丁散文中类似的分段〔data〕But whiledata comes from a Latin plural form, the practice of treatingdata as a plural in English often does not correspond to its meaning, given an understanding of what counts as data in modern research.We know, for example, what "data on the homeless" would consist of—surveys, case histories, statistical analyses, and so forth—but it would be a vain exercise to try to sort all of these out into sets of individual facts,each of them a "datum" on the homeless. (Does a case history count as a single datum,or as a collection of them?Is a correlation between rates of homelessness and unemployment itself a datum, or is it an abstraction over a number of data?)Since scientists and researchers think of data as a singular mass entity like information,it is entirely natural that they should have come to talk about it as such and that others should defer to their practice.Sixty percent of the Usage Panel accepts the use ofdata with a singular verb and pronoun in the sentenceOnce the data is in, we can begin to analyze it. A still larger number, 77 percent, accepts the sentence 但是当data 来源于一拉丁复数形式， 在英语中把data 当作复数来对待的运用常常和它的意义不相符合， 给了我们在现代研究中算作数据事物的一种理解。例如，我们知道，“无家可归人的资料”将由调查、个人历史，数据分析等等构成——但是试着把这些都分类到一套个人事实将会是一次无用的尝试，他们中的每一个都为无家可归人的资料。 （个人历史是算作一个简单的资料，还是作为其中的一个收集?无家可归人的比率和失业之间的联系是一个资料，还是一系列资料中的一个提取？）既然科学家和研究工作者认为资料和信息一样是一个单一的团体，他们就应该这样地来谈论它并且其他的人应当服丛他们的说法，这是完全自然的，百分之六十的用法专题使用小组成员接受把data 和单数动词和代词连用， 如在句子一旦资料来了，我们就能开始分析了 中， 更大的比例，即百分之七十七的成员接受了句子 〔misericord〕A dagger, a support for someone who is standing, and a special monastic apartment are all called by the same name because,strangely enough,they are all examples of mercy.The wordmisericord goes back to Latin misericordia, "mercy,” derived frommisericors, "merciful,” which is in turn derived frommiserērī, "to pity,” and cor, "heart.” In Medieval Latin the wordmisericordia was used to denote various merciful things, and these senses were borrowed into English.Misericordia referred to an apartment in a monastery where certain relaxations of the monastic rule were permitted,especially those involving food and drink.The word also designated a projection on the underside of a hinged seat in a choir stall against which a standing person could lean,no doubt a merciful thing during long services.Finally,misericordia was used for a dagger with which the death stroke was administered to a seriously wounded knight. 匕首、站立的人依靠的托板和一种特殊的修道院房都被称为同一名称，尽管非常奇怪，但这是因为它们全都是仁慈和怜悯的例证。misericord 一词可追溯到拉丁词 misericordia 意为“怜悯”， 源自misericors 意为“怜悯的”， 而后者又从misereri 意为“怜悯”和 cor 意为“心”演变而来。 在中世纪拉丁文中misericordia 一词用来指示各种表现仁慈和怜悯的事物， 这些意思被转借进了英语。Misericordia 指的是修道院中的一个房间， 某些特定的修道戒律在此被允许放宽，特别是有关饮食的戒律。这个词也指教堂座位的活动座板底面上可供站立的人依靠的凸出物，这在长长的宗教仪式中无疑是一个富有仁慈之心的物体，后来misericordia 也用来指将受伤很重的骑士刺死的匕首 〔lucre〕When William Tyndale translatedaiskhron kerdos, "shameful gain" (Titus 1:11), as filthy lucre in his edition of the Bible, he was tarring the wordlucre for the rest of its existence. But we cannot lay the pejorative sense oflucre completely at Tyndale's door. He was merely a link,albeit a strong one,in a process that had begun long before with respect to the ancestor of our word,the Latin wordlucrum, "material gain, profit.” This process was probably controlled by the inevitable conjunction of profit, especially monetary profit, with evils such as greed.In Latinlucrum also meant "avarice,” and in Middle Englishlucre, besides meaning "monetary gain, profit,” meant "illicit gain.”Furthermore, many of the contexts in which the neutral sense of the word appeared were not that neutral,as in "It is a wofull thyng . . . ffor lucre of goode . . . A man to fals his othe [it is a sad thing for a man to betray his oath for monetary gain].”Tyndale thus merely helped the process along when he gave us the phrasefilthy lucre. 当威廉·廷代尔在他的《圣经》版本里把aiskhon kerdos （“可耻的收获”）翻译成 filthy lucre 时， 他就把lucre 这个词当作贬义了， 这个词以后也就这样解释了。但是我们不能把lucre 这个词的贬义全部归于廷代尔名下。 他只是整个过程的一个环节，尽管是个有力的环节，这个过程早在我们这个词的祖先，拉丁字lucrum （意为“物质获得，利润”）就开始了。 这个过程很可能与带有类似贪婪这样的罪恶利润，尤其是钱财利润不可避免地联系在一起。在拉丁文里，lucrum 也有“贪婪”的意思。 在中世纪英语中，lucre 除了有“钱财收入，利润”的意思之外， 还意味着“不正当的所得”。更进一步说，即使这个词意思是中性的，但上下文却不是那么的中性，比如“一个人为了钱财背弃自己的誓言。”廷代尔在给我们短语filthy lucre 时，仅仅有助于把这个过程延续下来 〔funky〕When asked which words in the English language are the most difficult to define precisely,a lexicographer would surely mentionfunky. The meaning offunky seems well captured by Geneva Smitherman in Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America, where she states that funky means “[related to] the blue notes or blue mood created in jazz, blues, and soul music generally, down-to-earth soulfully expressed sounds; by extension [related to] the real nitty-gritty or fundamental essence of life, soul to the max.”Be that as it may,funky is first recorded in 1784 in a reference to musty, old, moldy cheese. Funky then developed the sense "smelling strong or bad,” which could be used to describe body odor.Butfunky was applied to jazz, too—a usage explained in 1959 by one F. Newton inJazz Scene : "Critics are on the search for something a little more like the old, original, passion-laden blues: the trade-name which has been suggested for it is ‘funky’(literally: ‘smelly,’ i.e. symbolizing the return from the upper atmosphere to the physical, down-to-earth reality).” Funky comes from the earlier nounfunk, which meant "a strong smell or stink.” This noun can probably be traced back to the Latin wordfūmus, "smoke.” 当被问及英语中最难准确定义的是哪些词时，词典编纂者肯定会提到funky 这个词。 Funky 的含义似乎被热纳瓦·史密斯曼在 语言和证明： 美国黑人语言一节中解释得很清楚，她认为 funky 指“主要在爵士乐、布鲁斯歌曲、灵乐这些发自灵魂深处的音乐中创造出的音符式的忧郁； 由此延伸为与生命本质精髓有关的，表现美国黑人及其文化特点到极致的。”Funky 最早可能被记录于1784年，用于指发霉的、过期的奶酪。 后来，funky 引申到这层意思“闻起来强烈或有异味的，” 可以用来形容身体的气味。但funky 也用于指爵士乐方面， 这种用法于1959年在一位名叫F·牛顿的人的书爵士舞台 中有所解释： “批评家们正在找一种有些更象原始的、激情洋溢的老布鲁斯歌曲一样的东西：用来表现后的词就是‘有气息的’（字面意义：‘有气味的，’也就是说，从高高在上的格调降回到自然而率直的风格）。” Funky 一词来自较早出现的名词funk， 意为“一种刺鼻的气味或臭味”。 这个词可能可追溯到拉丁词fumus， “烟” 〔senile〕In earlier writings one finds phrases such as "asenile maturity of judgment" and "green and vigorous senility, ” demonstrating that these two words have not always been burdened with their current negative connotations. Senile and senility are examples of pejoration, the process by which a word's meaning changes for the worse over time.Even thoughsenile (first recorded in 1661) and senility (first recorded in 1778) initially had neutral senses such as "pertaining to old age,” it is probable that the weakness (in particular the mental weakness) that sometimes accompanies old age eventually caused negative senses to predominate.Certainly some pejorative associations were present in Latinsenīlis, "relating to an old man, aged,” the ultimate source of both words, and in related Latin words such assenēscere, which could mean "to deteriorate with age.” But it seems that pejorative associations have taken over these words in English through general usage,perhaps because average life expectancy has risen steadily over the years.在较早的文学作品中人们可以找到形如“判断力Senile（老练） 成熟”和“精力旺盛的有魄力的 Senility（老态龙钟） ”的短语，表明这两个词一直没有表示他们流行的消极的含义。 Senile 和 senility 是词义转贬的范例， 即一个词的意思随时间变化变得越来越坏。尽管senile （首次记载于1661年）和 senility （首次记载于1778年）最初具有中性的意义，例如“关于老年的”， 可能是伴随老年出现的衰弱（特别是智力衰弱）最终导致了反面的意思居支配地位。当然有一些词义转贬的联系表现在拉丁文中的senilis （“关于老人的，老年的”），是这两个词的最早的词源， 和与之相关的拉丁词如senecer ，意为“随年纪恶化”。 但是看起来在英语中通过广泛的使用词义转贬的联系已经取代了这些词，可能是由于平均估计寿命随时代发展稳步上升〔sierra〕Perhaps in formal contextsit is wise after mentioning a mountain range such as the Sierra Nevadato refer to it next asthe Sierras rather thanthe Sierra Mountains, sincemountains is inherent in sierra. Nonetheless, many Californians and Nevadans in particular will be very familiar with phrases such asthe Sierra Mountains. Such phrases are used because to a non-Spanish speakersierra does not necessarily have a meaning, unless one is familiar with the English wordsierra, "a rugged range of mountains having an irregular profile,” borrowed from Spanish. In Spanishsierra originally meant "saw" and so was aptly applied to a range of hills or mountains rising in peaks that suggested the teeth of a saw.It comes from Latinserra, "saw,” to which can also be traced our wordserrated. 也许在正式的语境中，提到了一山脉如内华达山脉之后，紧接着再提到时称为the Sierra ， 而不是the Sierra Mountains ， 因为mountains 是包含在 sierra 之中的。 尽管如此，许多加利福尼亚人，尤其是内华达人对类似the Sierra Mountains 这样的词组很熟悉。 使用这样的词组是因为对一个非西班牙语的人来说，sierra 一词并不一定有意义， 除非是一个熟悉这个从西班牙语中借用来的英语单词sierra （一崎岖的山脉，有曲折的轮廓）的人。 在西班牙语中，sierra 原意为“锯子”， 所以很恰当地被用来指峰峦叠起，使人联想起锯齿的山脉或群山。这个词来源于拉丁文serra （锯子）， serrated 也可以追溯到这个拉丁词 〔industry〕A clear indication of the way in which human effort has been harnessed as a force for the commercial production of goods and services is the change in meaning of the wordindustry. Coming from the Latin wordindustria, meaning "diligent activity directed to some purpose,”and its descendant, Old Frenchindustrie, with the senses "activity,” "ability,” and "a trade or occupation,”our word (first recorded in 1475) originally meant "skill,” "a device,” and "diligence" as well as "a trade.”As more and more human effort over the course of the Industrial Revolution became involved in producing goods and services for sale,the last sense ofindustry as well as the slightly newer sense "systematic work or habitual employment" grew in importance, to a large extent taking over the word.We can even speak now of the Shakespeare industry,rather like the garment industry.The sense "diligence, assiduity,” lives on, however,perhaps even to survive industry itself.industry 有一个明显的含义，即指将人力组织转化成进行货物商业性生产和进行商业性服务的方法，而在有此含义前，这个词经历了多次变化。 这个词来源于拉丁文industria ， 意思是“为某种目的而进行的勤奋的活动”；后来这个拉丁字发展成古法语单词industrie ， 其意思是“活动性”、“能力”和“一种行业和职业”。英文单词（最早的记载是1475年）原意是“技巧”、“方法”、“勤奋”，也有“一种行业”之意。随着产业革命的开展，越来越多的人力被用于进行货物生产和商业服务，industry 最新的含义及其较新的意思“有组织的劳动或习惯性的雇佣”变得重要起来， 并逐渐成为这个词最主要的意思。现在，我们甚至在提到莎士比亚研究时，就象提及成衣制造业。不过，“勤劳、勤奋”这层含义仍在使用，也许只要这个单词存在，这层含义就不会消失〔irrational〕Being a syllable in Greek and Latin prosody whose length does not fit the metric pattern.希腊和拉丁诗歌韵律学中中长度不符合格律的音节的〔desert〕When Shakespeare says in Sonnet 72,"Unless you would devise some virtuous lie,/To do more for me than mine own desert,”he is using the worddesert in the sense of "worthiness; deserving,” a word that is perhaps most familiar to us in the plural, meaning "something that is deserved,”as in the phrasejust deserts. This word goes back to the Latin worddēservīre, "to devote oneself to the service of,”which in Vulgar Latin came to mean "to merit by service.” Dēservīre is made up ofdē-, meaning "thoroughly,” and servīre, "to serve.” Knowing this,we can distinguish thisdesert from desert, "a wasteland,” and desert, "to abandon,” both of which go back to Latindēserere, "to forsake, leave uninhabited,” which is made up ofdē-, expressing the notion of undoing, and the verb serere, "to link together.” We can also distinguish all threedeserts from dessert, "a sweet course at the end of a meal,” which is from the French worddesservir, "to clear the table.” Desservir is made up ofdes-, expressing the notion of reversal, and servir (from Latin servīre ), "to serve,” hence, "to unserve" or "to clear the table.”当莎士比亚在第72首十四行诗中说：“除非你能编出善意的谎言/把我说得比我本人强得多”，这里desert 的意思就是“应得的东西”。 对这个词，我们最熟悉的大概是其复数形式（意思是“应得的东西”）。例如在词组just deserts 中。 该词的起源可以追溯到拉丁词deservire ， 意为“为…而献身”，在俗拉丁语中，意思就变成了“依据服务应得…”。 Deservire 由de- 意思是“完全地，彻底地”和 servire “服务”组成。 知道了这些，我们就可以把desert 与 desert “荒原”和 desert “放弃”区别开来。 后面两个意义可追溯到拉丁语deserere “遗弃，无人居住”， 它由de- 表示“不做”的概念和动词 serere “连接到一起”组成。 我们也能把所有这三个deserts 与 dessert “正餐最后上的一道甜食”区分开来， 后者来自法语词desservir “收拾桌子”。 Desservir 由表达“反，逆”概念的des- 和 servir 组成（来自拉丁语 servire ）， 意为“服务”、“因此“、“不上菜”或“清理桌子”〔macaronic〕Of or containing a mixture of vernacular words with Latin words or with vernacular words given Latinate endings:本国词和拉丁词混合的：包含本国词与拉丁词混合的或本国词以为拉丁词尾的：〔accolade〕Those who have received so many accolades that they have no fear of getting it in the neck may have to reconsider their situation.In tracingaccolade back to its Latin origins, we find that it was formed from the prefixad-, "to, on,” and the noun collum, "neck,” which may bring the wordcollar to mind. From these elements came the Vulgar Latin word.accollāre, which, in turn, was the source of Frenchaccolade, "an embrace.” An embrace was originally given to a knight when dubbing him,a fact that accounts foraccolade having the technical sense "ceremonial bestowal of knighthood,” the sense in which the word is first recorded in English in 1623.那些接受了如此多的拥吻以致不怕再在颈部接受的人，也许应考虑一下他们所处状况。追溯accolade 的拉丁文辞源， 我们可以发现它是由前缀ad- “到在…之上”之意和名词 collum， “颈部”之意， 这词使我们想起collar 一词。 从这些成分组成俗拉丁词accollare， 而这词反过来又成为法语词accolade， “拥抱”的词源。 原来是指骑士授予时所给予的拥抱，这事实可解释accolade 一词带“授予骑士称号的典礼”的意义， 这个词带这种意义在英语中是在1623年第一次使用〔whore〕Derivatives of Indo-European roots often make strange bedfellows. A prime example is the case of.kā-, "to like, desire.” From the stem.kāro- derived from this root came the prehistoric Common Germanic word .hōraz with the underlying meaning "one who desires" and the effective meaning "adulterer.” From this word came the Old English wordhōre, the ancestor of Modern Englishwhore. The same stem produced the Latin wordcārus, "dear,” from which came Modern Englishcaress, cherish, and charity, the highest form of love. Contact with East Indian culture has added yet another pair of derivatives from this Indo-European root to the English language.From the stem.kāmo- came the Sanskrit word kāmaḥ, "love, desire,” from which are derived the English borrowingsKama, "the Hindu god of love,” andKamasutra, "a Sanskrit treatise on the rules of love and marriage according to Hindu law.” 从印欧语词根派生出的词常产生奇怪的词伴。一个很好的例子就是ko- “喜欢，渴望”。 从这个词根派生出karo 这个词干，然后又产生出史前共同日尔曼语的 horaz 一词，暗指“渴望…的人”，也含有显著的意义“通奸者”。 从这个词又产生古英语中的hore， 这是现代英语whore 的前身。 这一词干产生了拉丁词carus “亲爱的”， 又由它而引出现代英语中的caress,cherish 和 charity 这是爱的最高形式。 与东印度文化的接触又给英语语言加上了另外两个从这个印欧词根派生出的词。从词干kamo- 产生出梵语词 kamah “爱，欲望”， 从这个词又产生出英语的外来词Kama “印度人的爱神”， 和Kamasutra “根据印度法律所制定的关于爱情和婚姻的规定的梵语论述” 〔superscription〕The part of a prescription that bears the Latin wordrecipe represented by the symbol ™. 以符号™为代表的标有拉丁字recipe 的药方部分 〔posthumous〕The wordposthumous is associated with death, both in meaning and in form. Our word goes back to the Latin wordpostumus, meaning "last born, born after the death of one's father, born after the making of a will,” and "last, final.”Postumus was largely used with respect to events occurring after death but not exclusively so,since the word was simply one of the superlative forms of the adverbpost, "subsequently, afterward.” Because of its use in connection with death,however, later Latin writers decided that the last part of the word must have to do withhumus, "earth,” or humāre, "to bury,” and began spelling the wordposthumus. This form of the Latin word was borrowed into English,being first recorded in a work composed before 1464.Perhaps the most telling use of the word appears in the poet Robert Southey's comment on the rewards of an author:"It was well we should be contented with posthumous fame, but impossible to be so with posthumous bread and cheese.”Posthumous 这个词在意义和形式上都与死亡有关。 英语中这个词可追溯到拉丁语postumus ， 意为“最后生的，父亲死后生的，立遗嘱之后出生的”和“最后的，最终的。”Postumus 绝大多数情况下用来指死后所发生的事情， 但也并非仅此一种用法，因为这个词只是意为“随后地，后来地”副词post 的最高级形式之一。 由于其用法与死亡有关，因此后来的拉丁语作者们决定该词的后半部分应与humus “土地”或 humare “埋葬”有关， 并开始将这个词拼写成posthumus。 这个拉丁词的拼写形式后来被借用到英语中，在英语中首次记录于1464年前所著的一部作品中。也许这个词最显著的使用出现在诗人罗伯特·骚塞对一个作者所得奖励的评论中：“我们满足于死后得到的声名，而不可能满足于死后所得到面包与奶酪，这样很好”〔Herrick〕English lyric poet whose sensuous, simple works, such as "Delight in Disorder" (1648), are marked by his affinity for Latin verse and the influence of Ben Jonson. He is considered the greatest Cavalier poet.赫里克，罗伯特：(1591-1674) 英国抒情诗诗人，他的作品富于感性而简单，如“西方乐土”(1648年），体现了其作品与拉丁韵文的雷同及受本·琼森的影响。他被认为是英国骑士派诗人中最伟大的诗人〔salad〕The wordsalad may have come to us from Vulgar Latin, the chiefly unrecorded common speech of the ancient Romans, which is distinguished from standard literary, or Classical, Latin.The word takes its origin from the fact that salt was and is an important ingredient of salad dressings.Hence the Vulgar Latin verb.salāre, "to salt,” from Latin sāl, "salt,” in the past participial form .salāta, "having been salted,” came to mean "salad.” The Vulgar Latin word passed into languages descending from it,such as Portuguese (salada ) and Old Provençal ( salada ). Old French may have borrowed its wordsalade from Old Provençal. Medieval Latin also carried on the Vulgar Latin word in the formsalāta. As in the case of so many culinary delights, the English borrowed the word and probably the dish from the French.The Middle English wordsalade, from Old French salade and Medieval Latin salāta, is first recorded in a recipe book composed before 1399. Salad 一词可能源于俗拉丁语， 一种区别于文学拉丁语和古典拉丁语的古罗马平民使用的无记载语言。该词有其起源是因为盐是沙拉调料的重要成分。因此从拉丁词sal ，“盐”的过去分词形式 Salata （“被加过盐的”）使俗拉丁语动词 salare “撒盐”转化为“沙拉”一义。 由此俗拉丁语词传入多种语言，如葡萄牙语(salada )和古普罗旺斯语( salada )。 古法语中的salade 一词可能来自于古普罗旺斯语。 中世纪拉丁语salata 也来自于该俗拉丁语。 因为有如此多烹调的乐趣，英国人从法国人那里借用了该词及这道菜。来自于古法语的Salade 及中世纪拉丁语 salāta 的中世纪英语中的 salade 一词被记载于1399年以前编的一本菜谱里 〔firm〕In these days of agribusiness,a farm and a firm are probably closer than they have been since the time before the wordsfarm and firm developed from the same Latin word, firmāre, "to strengthen, make fast, confirm, attest,” which is derived from Latinfirmus, the source offirm, meaning "secure.” In Medieval Latinfirmāre came to mean "to ratify by signature,” from which sense eventually came our word firm, first recorded in 1574 with the meaning "signature.”This wordfirm later added the senses "designation under which a firm transacts business" and "commercial house.” Latinfirmāre by way of Old French also gave us Middle English ferme, the ancestor of our wordfarm. 大农场经营年代，农场和商行也许比在farm 和 firm 从同一拉丁语 firmare， 意为“加强，使牢固，使确定，使证明”发展来之前联系更为紧密， 它是从拉丁词firmus 派生而来， 即firm 一词的来源，意为“确定的”。 在中世纪拉丁语中，firmare 开始取意为“用签名来批准，”从此含义出发，最终有了我们的 firm 这个词， 1574年它首次被记录下来，意为“签名”。Firm 这个词后来增加了两个含义，“商行借以办理事务的名称”和“经商的房屋。” 拉丁词firmare 也通过古法语给了我们中世纪英语 ferme 这个词， 它是我们的单词farm 的前身 〔premise〕Why do we call a single buildingthe premises ? To answer this question,we must go back to the Middle Ages.But first, let it be noted thatpremises comes from the past participle praemissa, which is both a feminine singular and a neuter plural form of the Latin verbpraemittere, "to send in advance, utter by way of preface, place in front, prefix.” In Medieval Latin the feminine formpraemissa was used as a term in logic, for which we still use the termpremise descended from the Medieval Latin word (first recorded in a work composed before 1380).Medieval Latinpraemissa in the plural meant "things mentioned before" and was used in legal documents, almost always in the plural,a use that was followed in Old French and Middle English, both of which borrowed the word from Latin.A more specific legal sense in Middle English,"that property, collectively, which is specified in the beginning of a legal document and which is conveyed, as by grant,”was also always in the plural in Middle English and later Modern English.And so it remained when this sense was extended to mean "a house or building with its grounds or appurtenances,”a usage first recorded before 1730.为什么我们把单独的一幢建筑称为the premises ？ 为了回答这个问题，我们必须回到中世纪。但首先必须注意的是premises 是从过去式 praemissa 而来的， 这是意思为“预先发送,以前言的方式说出，放在前边，前缀”的拉丁动词praemittere 的阴性单数形式及中性复数形式。 在中世纪拉丁语中，praemissa 作为阴性形式被用作逻辑状语， 因此我们仍然使用这个来源于中世纪拉丁语的术语premise （第一次记载于1380年前编纂的作品中）。中世纪拉丁语praemissa 的复数形式意为“前面提到的事物”， 用于法律文件并总是以复数形式出现，古法语和中古英语中都从拉丁语中借用了这个词及其用法。中古英语中有一种更特殊的法律方面的意义，“法律文件开头指明并根据转让的财产，如通过赠送”,在中世纪英语和后来的现代英语中也是以复数形式使用。因此当它的意思被扩展为“连同其土地及设施一所房子或一幢建筑”时仍保留这一用法，该用法最初记载于1730年前。〔Halle〕Latvian-born American linguist whose works includeThe Sound Pattern of English (1968), a collaboration with Noam Chomsky. 哈尔，墨利斯：拉丁裔美国语言学家，其作品包括《英语的发音模式》 （1968年），为与诺恩，察姆司基所共同研究的作品 〔nonchalant〕A nonchalant person is not likely to become warm or heated about anything,a fact that is underscored by the etymology of the wordnonchalant. Non-,the first part of the word, is easy to spot as a familiar negative prefix;since this word was formed in Old French,we havenon-, the Old French descendant of Latin nōn-. The second element,chalant, is the Old French present participle of the verb chaloir, meaning "to be concerned.”This in turn came from the Latin wordcalēre, which from its concrete sense "to be hot or warm" developed the figurative sense "to be roused or fired with hope, zeal, or anger.”Obviously the Old French verbchaloir has lost some of the warmth of Latin calēre, but then, the nonchalant person has little warmth or concern.The wordnonchalant is first recorded in English before 1734, although Frenchnonchalance, a derivative of French nonchalant, seems to have entered English first. Englishnonchalance is first recorded in 1678. 态度冷漠的人是不太可能变得热心或对某事激动的，这一事实被词语nonchalant的词源所强调。 Non-，这个词的第一部分， 很容易认出是个很熟悉的否定前缀；因为此词形成于古法语，我们可以说non-，来自 拉丁语 non- 在古法语中的衍生词。 第二个组成部分chalant， 是动词 chaloir 的古法语现在分词， 意思是“担忧的，关心的”。此词同样也来自于拉丁词calere ， 从其具体的感觉“热的或暖和的”演变到比喻的感觉“被激起或引起希望、热心或愤怒”。很明显古法语动词chaloir 已去掉了一些拉丁语 calere 的温暖， 不过，冷漠的人确是几乎没有什么热心或关心的。词语nonchalant 在1734年前第一次被记录在英语中， 尽管法语nonchalence, 是法语 nonchalant 的派生词似乎已首先进入英语。 英语中的nonchalance 于1678年第一次被记录下来 〔vulgar〕The wordvulgar brings to mind off-color jokes, but this was not always so.Ironically the wordvulgar is itself an example of pejoration, the process by which the semantic status of a word changes for the worse over a period of time.The ancestor ofvulgar, the Latin word vulgāris (from vulgus, "the common people"), meant "of or belonging to the common people, everyday,”as well as "belonging to or associated with the lower orders.”Vulgāris also meant "ordinary,” "common (of vocabulary, for example),” and "shared by all.” Its only sense of the sort we might expect was related to the notion of general sharing, that is, "sexually promiscuous.”Our word, first recorded in a work composed in 1391,entered English during the Middle English period,and in Middle English and later English we find not only the senses mentioned above but also related senses.What is common can be seen as debased,and in the 17th century we begin to find instances ofvulgar that made very explicit what was already implicit. Vulgar now meant "deficient in taste, delicacy, or refinement.” From such usevulgar has gone downhill, and at present "crudely indecent" is probably one of the first senses ofvulgar that occurs to many when the word is used. Vulgar 这个词使人想起下流的玩笑， 但这并不尽然。具有讽刺意味的是vulgar 这个词本身就是一个贬义词， 是一个词的语义经过一段时间变为贬义的过程。Vulgar 的语源，拉丁词 vulgaris （来自于 vulgrs， “普通人”）， 意思是平常人的、属于平常人的或日常的，”也意味着“属于低等阶级的，与低阶级有关的。”Vulgaris 也意味着“平常的”，“普通的（如词汇表的）”，和“大家共有的。” 我们可能会想到的这一类的唯一意思与“大家共有的”的意思是有关，即“滥交的。”这个词，首先记载于1391年编的一部书里，在中古英语期间进入英语，在中古英语和后期的英语中我们不仅发现它有上述的意思，也有其它相关的意思。普通的可以被看作是低下的，在17世纪我们开始发现vulgar 把含蓄的意思变得很明显的例子。 现在vulgar 指“品味、格调或教养不高的。” 以这个意思vulgar 开始走下坡路， 现在当人们使用vulgar 时，对许多人来讲“粗野下流的”可能是第一个意思 〔see〕"espied the misspelled Latin word in [the] letter" (Los Angeles Times); “发现在［这个］ 字母中拼错的拉丁字” （洛杉矶时报）； |
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