| 单词 | 那就是 |
| 释义 | 〔methodology〕Methodology can properly refer to the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge.In this sense,one may speak ofobjections to the methodology of a geographic survey (i.e., objections dealing with the appropriateness of the methods used) or of themethodology of modern cognitive psychology (i.e., the principles and practices that underlie research in the field). In recent years, however,methodology has been increasingly used as a pretentious substitute for method in scientific and technical contexts, as inThe oil company has not yet decided on a methodology for restoring the beaches. This usage may have been fostered in part by the tendency to use the adjectivemethodological to mean "pertaining to methods,” in as much as the regularly formed adjectivemethodical has been preempted to mean "orderly, systematic.” But the misuse ofmethodology obscures an important conceptual distinction between the tools of scientific investigation (properly methods ) and the principles that determine how such tools are deployed and interpreted—a distinction that the scientific and scholarly communities, if not the wider public,should be expected to maintain.Methodology 可指对一个学科的研究方法进行的理论分析， 也可指一个学科特有的一整套方法与步骤。在这种意义上，人们可以说对于一个地理调查所用方法提出的异议 （即，关于所用方法是否适当所提的异议）， 也可以说现代认知心理学的研究方法 （即，形成一门学科的研究基础的原则和方法）。 然而，近些年来，在科学、技术语境中，methodology 越来越多地被用做颇带炫耀夸张色彩的 method 的替换词， 如说石油公司尚未决定恢复海滩环境的方法。 这种用法可能部分地起因于用形容词methodological 来表示“与方法有关的”意思的倾向， 因为用常规方法构成的形容词methodical 已先行意味着“有序的，有系统的”。 但是methodology 的这种错误用法模糊了一个重要的概念区分，那就是科学研究的方法（正确的说法应是 methods )和决定这些方法如何运用和阐释的原则之间的区分——这个区分， 如果不为更多的大众所认识，至少应为科学和学者圈子所坚持〔mosquito〕Flies will never be popular creatures,in spite or because of their omnipresence.Two examples of the fly's influence on our lives can be found in the etymologies of the wordsmosquito and musket, both of which can be traced back tomusca, the Latin word for fly.This Latin word becamemosca in Spanish and Portuguese, Romance languages that developed from Vulgar Latin. Mosquito, the diminutive of mosca, was borrowed into English (first recorded around 1583) with the same sense "mosquito" that it had in Spanish and Portuguese. The Romance language French was the source of our wordmusket (first recorded around 1587), which came from Frenchmousquet, but this word entered French from yet another Romance language, Italian.From the descendant of Latinmusca, Italian mosca, was formed the diminutive moschetta with the senses "bolt for a catapult" and "small artillery piece.” Frommoschetta came moschetto, "musket,” the source of Frenchmousquet. The use ofmoschetta, literally "little fly,” to mean "bolt from a crossbow"can be ascribed to the factthat both bolt and insect fly, buzz, and sting.苍蝇将永远不会成为受人欢迎的动物，尽管或也许正因为它们无处不在。苍蝇影响我们生活的两个例子可在两个单词mosquito 和 musket 词源中找到， 两者都可追溯到musca， 拉丁文中是“苍蝇”的意思。这个拉丁文单词在西班牙语、葡萄牙语和其他由拉丁文演变而来的语言中变为mosca 。 Mosca 的小词 mosquito 被借入英语中（大约于1583年首次出现）跟它在西班牙语和葡萄牙语中一样，都表示“蚊子”。 从拉丁文演变来的法语是单词musket （大约在1587年首次出现）的词源， 这个词来自一个法语词mousquet ， 但这一词仍然是从另一个由拉丁语演变而来的意大利语中借入法语的。起源于拉丁语musca 的意大利单词 mosca 形成了一个小词 moschetta ， 意思是“弹弓上使用的螺钉”和“小炮弹”。 从moschetta 中产生了 moschetto 意为“火枪”， 是法语词mousquet 的词源。 moschetta 的字面意思是指“小苍蝇”， 用来比喻“弩上的弓箭”，这可以归因于一个事实，那就是弓箭和苍蝇都会飞，并且都能发出嗡嗡声而且会刺伤人〔father〕The verbfather has come to be used widely to mean specifically to "perform the child-rearing functions of a father,”particularly in the gerundfathering, as inFathering a step-child takes considerable tact and understanding. This usage reflects the same social changes that have led to the analogous use of the verbparent and has met with the same kinds of critical resistance.In the most recent surveythe example cited was rejected by 64 percent of the Usage Panel.A problem particular to this use offather is that it may occasion opportunities for humorous misconstruction,since it is in direct competition with the older sense of "beget.” ·It is notablethat the analogous use ofmother as a verb meaning specifically "to perform the child-rearing functions of a mother" is encountered only rarely.It is likely that the discrepancy in the frequency of these new uses ofmother and father reflects the fact that recent writers on family life have tended to place more emphasis on a reconceptualization of the traditional paternal role in child-rearing.See Usage Note at parent 动词father 被广泛应用， 尤指“履行一个父亲养育孩子的职责”，特别是动名词fathering， 如在抚育养子得花费巨大的心智和理解 。 这种用法反应了引起动词parent 相似用法的同样社会变化， 并遭到了同样的批评反对。在最近的调查中，引用的例子被用法专题使用小组64%的成员反对。特别对于father 这种用法的一个问题是， 它可能会引起幽默的误解，因为它直接与旧观念的“生育”冲突。值得注意的是，mother 作为动词的相似用法意思特指“履行一个母亲生养孩子的职责”， 这种用法很少见。看起来mother 和 father 这些新用法出现频率的不一致反映了一个事实， 那就是近期家庭生活题材的作者们倾向于将更多的重点放在重新定义父母在抚养孩子上所充任的传统角色 参见 parent〔adamantine〕"If there is one dominant trait that emerges from this account, it is adamantine willpower"(Eugene Linden)“如果这篇报道体现了什么主要特征的话，那就是坚强的意志力”(尤金·林登)〔bayonet〕It is not unusual for a word to come from a place name.Cheddar, from the name of a village in southwest England; hamburger, after Hamburg, Germany; and mayonnaise, possibly from Mahón, the capital of Minorca, are often found together on our tables.The wordbayonet, a very undomestic sort of word, also derives from a place name,that of Bayonne, a town in southwest France where the weapon was first made.The French wordbaïonnette could mean "a dagger or a knife" as well, and the English word bayonet is first found in 1672 with this meaning. The word is first recorded in its present sense in 1704.一个词来源于一个地名并非罕见。Cheddar 来源于英格兰西南部一个村庄的名字； hamburger 是根据德国汉堡而得名； mayonnaise 可能来自米诺卡岛的首府梅霍恩， 这些词常常可以在我们的表里一齐被找到。bayonet， 一个与母语毫无关系的词， 也是来自地名，那就是法国西南城镇巴约讷，在那里首先造出了这种武器。法语词baionnette 可能意味着“短剑或刀”，同样英语的 bayonet 于1672年第一次被发现时也具有这个意思。 在1704年这个词首次以现在的意思被记录下来〔lonely〕Henry Bradley, one of the four editors of theOxford English Dictionary, said "It is a truth often overlooked, but not unimportant, that every addition to the resources of a language must in the first instance have been due to an act (though not necessarily to a voluntary or conscious act) of some one person.”In many casesthis one person may have been an author,since the first recorded instance of a word is often found in an author's work.Of course, as Bradley warns,this is the firstrecorded instance; it is possible that a given author picked up the word or sense somewhere elseor that these reside undiscovered in an earlier work.In any caseit might be a minor relief of our condition the next time we feel lonely to know that the first recorded instance of the wordlonely occurs in the works of Shakespeare. The passage appears inCoriolanus (1607-1608) in a speech by Coriolanus to his mother Volumnia:"My mother, you wot [know] well/My hazards still have been your solace, and/Believe't not lightly—though I go alone,/Like to alonely dragon, that his fen/Makes fear'd and talk'd of more than seen—your son/Will or exceed the common or be caught/With cautelous [crafty] baits and practice.” Lonely here, of course, has the sense "solitary.” The dragon does not feel dejected,or if he does,he does not seem to know how to reach out to others effectively.牛津英语词典 的四位编纂者之一亨利·布莱德雷说： “人们经常忽视这样一个现实，但它并非不重要，那就是对某种语言词汇的每一次添加都首先是由于某一个人的行为（尽管不一定是自愿的或有意识的行为）”。许多时候，这一个人可能是个作者，因为一个词有记载的首次使用往往出自一位作者的作品。当然，正如布莱德雷所提醒人们的，这是首次有记载的 的例子； 某个作者可能是从别处学到这个词或这个意思，或是这个词或意思在更早的作品中已经出现，只是未被人们发现。不管怎样，当我们知道lonely 这个词的有记载的首次使用出现在莎士比亚的作品中时，这些都不大能减轻我们的沮丧心情。 在卡里奥拉纳斯 （1607-1608年）中， 卡里奥拉纳斯对他母亲弗罗姆尼娅讲的一段话中有这样的文字：“我的母亲，你清楚地知道／我的冒险一直是你的安慰，而且／不要轻信——尽管我要只身前往，／就象去面对一条孤单的 龙，他的沼泽／令人谈而色变，尽管并未亲见——你的儿子／决意或是胜过凡人或是被狡猾的圈套和手段擒捉”。 Lonely 在这里的意思当然是“孤单的”。 龙不会感到沮丧，即便它感到沮丧，他也不太可能知道如何让别人体会到它的感情〔equal〕It has been argued thatequal is an absolute term— two quantities either are or are not equal—and hence cannot be qualified as to degree.Therefore one cannot logically speak ofa more equal allocation of resources among the departments. However, this usage was accepted by 71 percent of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey.What is more, objection to the usage betrays a widespread but questionable assumptionthat it is in mathematics and logic that we find the model of accuracy most appropriate to the everyday use of language,a supposition that also underlies traditional grammatical discussions of words such asunique, parallel, and center. According to this account,the "precise" or "literal" meaning ofequal is realized in the use of the equal sign in an arithmetic expression such as 5 + 2 = 7; and the ordinary-language uses of the term,though they may be permissible,represent "loose" or "imprecise" extensions of that sense.But in fact the mathematical concept of equality is a poor model for using the wordequal to describe relations between things in the world. As applied to such things,statements of equality are always relative to an implicit standard of tolerance.When someone saysThe two boards are of equal length, we assume that the equality is reckoned to some order of approximation determined by the context;if we did not,we would be required always to usenearly equal when speaking of the dimensions of physical objects. What is more,we often want to predicate equality of things that do not admit of quantitative measurement,as when we sayThe college draft was introduced in an effort to make the teams in the National Football League as equal as possible, orThe candidates for the job should all be given equal consideration. In all such cases,equality is naturally a gradient notionand so is amenable to modification in degree.This much is evident from the existence of the wordunequal. The prefixun- attaches only to gradient adjectives: we sayunmanly but not unmale; and the worduneven can be applied to a surface (whose evenness may be a matter of degree) but not to a number (whose evenness is an either-or affair). ·The adverbequally is generally regarded as redundant when used in combination with as, and the following examples employingequally as were termed unacceptable by 63 percent of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey: 单词equal 一向被认为是一个很绝对的词语—— 两个数量要么相同要么不同——这样就不能有程度上的差别。所以，如果有人说在各部门间对资源更公平的分配 ，那么就不合逻辑了。 但是这种用法在早先的用法调查中被百分之七十一用法使用小组的人接受。而且，对这种用法的反对体现出了一种很流行但却值得怀疑的假设，那就是我们从数学和逻辑中得出适用于日常语言准确性的实例，而这种假设也可从我们对一些词，如unique，parallel 和 center 传统的语法讨论中体现出来。 根据这个解释，equal “准确”或“书面”的意思则是由在算术表达式，如5+2=7中所运用的相同的符号而表达清楚的； 而该词在日常语言中的用法，虽然被允许，但却代表了其含意“松散”或“不严谨”的引申。但是实际上用数学概念上的相等来运用equal 这个词描述世上各种事物之间的关系是一个很差劲的例子。 当该词应用于生活中的事物时，相等的观念往往与暗含的容忍相关联。当有人说两块木板同样长 时， 我们会认为由于上下文的关系，相等可以被看作大约近似；如果我们不这样想，那么当我们谈到物体的尺寸时，就要经常使用nearly equal 。 另外，我们常常会预测和数量无关的事物的相同性，比如我们会说，引入大学的要求是为了使全国足球联合会中的各队尽可能平等 ， 或者应给予该项工作的应征者同等的考虑 。 在所有这些例子中，相等是个可变化的概念，所以可在程度有所不同。Unequal 这个词的存在就是很好的证明。 un- 这个前缀只附加于有程序变化的形容词， 我们说unmanly 但不说 unmale ； 而uneven 这个词只能用于某物的表面（其平坦可有程度上的差别）， 而不能用于数目（数目只能说相等或不相等）。Equally 这一副词在与 as 连用时通常被认为是多余的， 在早先的用法调查中，以下这些使用equally as 的句子遭到百分之六十三使用小组的人反对： 〔mean〕that is what its name imports.那就是它的名字所含有的意义。〔presume〕That's the new assistant, I presume.我想那就是新来的助理〔support〕"There is only one proved method of assisting the advancement of pure science—that of picking men of genius,backing them heavily,and leaving them to direct themselves" (James B. Conant).“促进纯科学的进步并已得到证明的方法只有一个——那就是选出有天才之士，强有力地支持他们，并让他们自己管理自己” （詹姆斯B·科南）。〔shorten〕The central meaning shared by these verbs is "to diminish the length, duration, or extent of by or as if by cutting": 这些词有一个共同的中心意思，那就是“用切割或好象切割一样减少的长度，持续时间或范围 〔bear〕"Man performs, engenders, so much more than he can or should have to bear. That's how he finds that he can bear anything" (William Faulkner). “人类所做的和引起的事情远远比他能够或必须承受的要多得多。那就是他如何发现了他能够忍受一切” （威廉·福克纳）。〔malaprop〕"She's as headstrong as an allegory on the banks of the Nile" and "He is the very pineapple of politeness" are two of the statements from the mouth of Mrs. Malapropthat helped her name become synonymous with ludicrous misuse of language.Mrs. Malaprop, a character in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's playThe Rivals, produced in 1775, consistently uses language malapropos,that is, inappropriately.The wordmalapropos comes from the French phrase mal à propos, made up ofmal, "badly,” à, "to,” and propos, "purpose, subject,” and literally means "badly to the purpose,” or "inappropriate.” The Rivals was a popular play, and Mrs. Malaprop became enshrined in a common noun,first in the formmalaprop and later inmalapropism, which is first recorded in 1849.Perhaps that is what Mrs. Malaprop fearedwhen she said "An aspersion upon my parts of speech" and "If I reprehend any thing in this world,it is the use of my oracular tongue,and a nice derangement of epitaphs!”“她与尼罗河堤岸上的寓言一样顽固”和“他正是礼貌的菠萝”是从马勒普罗太太嘴里说出的两句话。她的这张嘴使她的名字成为荒唐地错用语言的代名词。1775 年，理查德·布林斯利·夏里丹写成了剧本情敌 ，马勒普罗太太就是这剧中的一个人物。 她不断地误用词语，即遣词造句不当。单词malapropos 来源于法语短语 mal _ propos， 构成是mal， “坏地”， _ “对于”和 propos， “目的，目标”结合起来，意指“对于目标不适当地”或“不恰当的”。 情敌 是一部很受欢迎的戏剧， 马勒普罗太太逐渐演变成一个大家都接受的名词。这个名词一开始的形式是malaprop ， 后来变成malapropism， 最早的记载是在1849年。可能使马勒普罗太太最为担心的，是当她说“对我部分言语所进行的诽谤”和“如果我还对这个世界上的任何事物能理解的话，那就是我玄妙的言语运用，以及墓志铭上那美妙的错乱!”〔single〕She had but a single thought, which was to escape.她现在只有一个想法，那就是逃跑〔inclination〕"I shall indulge the inclination so natural in old men, to be talking of themselves"(Benjamin Franklin)See Synonyms at tendency “我将沉迷于老年人一种自然倾向，那就是不停地谈论自己”(本杰明·富兰克林) 参见 tendency〔limerick〕Etymologies can sometimes be a bit disappointing,as, for example,when one is told thatlimerick is named after a city or county in Ireland without being told why it is so named.Unfortunately, we run into a difficulty here that is not uncommonly faced by etymologists,namely, that no one is precisely sure why this piece of humorous verse was so named.One theory is that it was named for a group of poets who wrote in Limerick in the 18th century;another, that it came from a custom at parties of making up a nonsense verse and following it with a chorus of "Will you come up to Limerick.”In any case,the first limericks appeared in books published in 1820 and 1821,and the form was popularized by Edward Lear in a collection published in 1846.The word itself, however, is not recorded until 1896.Let us sum up by saying:"There once was a verse form named limerick./No one can account for the name of it./Some think from a game/Or from poets it came./If you know please come up to Limerick.”查看词源学后会经常令我们失望，这是因为，比如，当某人得知limerick 是由爱尔兰的一城市（或一个郡的）名字而来， 却并不告知这样命名的原因。不幸的是，我们碰到了一个词源学家经常遇到的难题，那就是，没有一个人能确定为什么这种幽默的诗歌这样命名。一种理论认为它是源于18世纪在利默里克写作的一群诗人；还有一种看法认为它是源于一种集会上的风俗，这种风俗要求写完一毫无意义的诗后众人合唱“你将去利默里克吗”。不管怎样，1820年和1821年出版的这种五行打油诗集子广为流传，爱德华·利尔于1846年出版的集子使这种形式得到普及。但是，这个单词直到1896年才有记载。我们可以通过这么说来总结：“曾经有种诗的形式名叫利默里克。/但没有人能解释它的名字。/有人认为源于一种游戏/或源于一群诗人。/如果你知道就到利默里克来。”〔Comstockery〕Bowdlerism, named after Dr. Thomas Bowdler (1754-1825),has been around longer than Comstockery, named for Anthony Comstock (1844-1915). All Bowdler did to enter the world of common nouns was to expurgate Shakespeare, the Bible, and Gibbon'sHistory of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. On the other hand, Comstock, the organizer and secretary of the New York Society for the Suppression of Vice,helped destroy 160 tons of literature and pictures that he deemed immoral.Comstockery, the word honoring his achievements, is first recorded in 1905 in a letter by George Bernard Shaw to the New York Times: “Comstockery is the world's standing Joke at the expense of the United States. . . . It confirms the deep-seated conviction of the Old World that America is a provincial place, a second rate country-town civilization after all.” 以汤姆斯·鲍德勒博士(1754-1825年）的名字命名的鲍德勒主义，存在时间要比以安东尼·康斯托克(1844-1915年）命名的康斯托克主义长一些。鲍德勒所做的只是删节莎士比亚作品、《圣经 》和吉伯恩的罗马帝国的衰落与灭亡 就使其名字成为一个通用名词了。 而另一方面，作为纽约反暴力社会党的组织者和秘书长，康斯托克协助销毁了160吨他认为不道德的作品与图片。Comstockery ，这一为了表彰他的成绩的词最初是出现于1905年乔治·伯那德·修在写给 纽约时报 的信中： “Comstockery 一词是世界对美国的嘲笑…它证实了在东半球中根深蒂固的观念，那就是美国是个粗鄙的地方，充其量只能算是一个二流的乡村文明” 〔happenstance〕"Marriage loomed only as an outgrowth of happenstance; you met a person"(Bruce Weber)“婚姻被看作是一种偶然情况的发展，那就是你遇到了一个人”(布鲁斯·韦伯)〔idiom〕"Also important is the uneasiness I've always felt at cutting myself off from my idiom, the American habits of speech and jest and reaction, all of them entirely different from the local variety"(S.J. Perelman)“还有一点很重要，那就是我总感到把自己与我们的习俗隔绝开来很不舒服，美国人说话、开玩笑和行动的方式与当地的风俗格格不入。”(S.J.佩雷尔曼)〔orgy〕The wordorgy has become connected in the minds of many of us with unrestrained sexual activity, but its origins are much less licentious.We can trace the word as far back as the Indo-European rootwerg-, meaning "to do"and the source of our wordwork. Greekorgia, "secret rites, worship,” also comes from the rootwerg-, by way of the form.worg-. The Greek word was used with reference to the worship and the ritespracticed in the worship of various deities,such as Orpheus and Dionysus.The word in Greek did not denote sexual activity,although this was a part of some of the various rites.The rites of Dionysus, for example, included only music, dancing, drinking, and the eating of animal sacrifices.Having passed through Latin and Old French into Englishthe wordorgy is first recorded in English with reference to the secret rites of the Greek and Roman religions in 1589. It is interesting to note that the word is first recorded with its modern sense in 18th-century English and perhaps in 17th-century French.Whether this speaks to a greater licentiousness in society or not must be left to the historian,but certainly the religious nature of the word has gone into eclipse.单词orgy 已经以不加节制的性行为的概念深植于我们许多人的头脑之中， 但它的原意却并非是很放荡的。我们可以追溯该词到印欧的词根werg- 当中， 意思是“做”，并且是我们work 一词的来源。 希腊语orgia, “秘密仪式，崇拜”， 也来源于词根werg-， 形式为worg- 。 希腊语中用其指崇拜以及一些仪式，这些仪式用于表达对各神明的崇拜，比如俄耳甫斯和狄俄尼索斯。该词在希腊语中并不是表示性行为，尽管性行为也是各种仪式中的一个部分。例如，狄俄尼索斯的仪式中仅仅包括音乐、舞蹈、饮酒和吃祭祀动物。从拉丁语和古法语转到英语，orgy 这一词在1589年首次在英文有记载表示希腊和罗马秘密宗教仪式含义。 有趣的是，该词早在18世纪也许17世纪就已有其现代意义的首次记载了。不论它是不是指社会中的一种大型的狂欢节（这是历史学家的事了），有一点是非常明确的，那就是这个词的宗教本质已经逐渐消失了〔smog〕Smog is so much a part of modern, industrialized lifethat it is difficult to realize that at one time neither smog nor the word for it existed.The word, of course, followed the phenomenon perhaps by half a century,for air pollution was noticed during the Industrial Revolution.The wordsmog is first recorded in 1905 in a newspaper report of a meeting of the Public Health Congress. Dr. H.A. des V÷ux gave a paper entitled "Fog and Smoke,” in which,in the words of theDaily Graphic of July 26, "he said it required no science to see that there was something produced in great cities which was not found in the country, and that was smoky fog, or what was known as ‘smog.’”The next day theGlobe remarked that "Dr. des V÷ux did a public service in coining a new word for the London fog.”Since Dr. des V÷ux's creation of this blend, much more has been learned about the composition of smog;unfortunately, it is still with us.烟雾污染已成为现代工业生活中如此大的一部分，以至有一段时间人们难以认识烟雾污染以及表达其存在的烟雾污染这个词。不言而喻，这个词是在这种现象产生半个世纪以后才出现的，因为空气污染是在工业革命期间才被发现。Smog 这个词的第一次使用记录出现在1905年关于公共健康委员会一次会议的新闻报导中， H·A·德佛博士当时上交了一份题为《雾和烟》的论文，按照7月26日每日画报 的说法， 在这篇论文中，“他认为不必借助科学，人们就会发现一种只存在于大城市而乡村没有的东西，那就是含烟的雾，或者叫做烟雾”。第二天的环球报 评论说： "H·A·德佛博士关于伦敦大雾所创造的新词是对公众的一个贡献”。自从H·A·德佛博士用混合的方法创造这个词开始，人们对烟雾的结构做了仔细的研究；但不幸的是，它至今还存在着 |
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