| 单词 | 语法 |
| 释义 | 〔vocative〕Abbr. voc.,v.Relating to or being a grammatical case used in Latin and certain other languages to indicate the person or thing being addressed.缩写 voc.,v.呼格的：关于或作为一种用于拉丁语和一些其它语言的语法情况，用于指示被称呼的人或物〔dialect〕 Dialect applies to the vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation characteristic of a specific geographic area or locality. The Dialect 适用于特殊地理区域或位置的词汇、语法和语音特点。〔absolutive〕Of or relating to the grammatical case in ergative languages of the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb.主动格的：不及物动词主语、及物动词宾语的主动格语言中的一种语法格的、或与其相关的〔Reuchlin〕German humanist and scholar who wroteOn the Fundamentals of Hebrew (1506), a classic text on Hebrew grammar and language. 罗伊希林，约翰：(1455-1522) 德国人文主义者和学者，撰写了《希伯来语语法纲要》 （1506年），是一本关于希伯来语语法和语言的经典教科书 〔gender〕A grammatical category used in the analysis of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and, in some languages, verbs that may be arbitrary or based on characteristics such as sex or animacy and that determines agreement with or selection of modifiers, referents, or grammatical forms.性：一种语法分类，用于名词、代词或形容词的分析，而且在某些语言中动词可能是任意的或基于一些特点的，例如性别和行为方式，来决定其与修饰成分、有关搭配及语法形式的一致性或选择性〔syntax〕The study of the rules whereby words or other elements of sentence structure are combined to form grammatical sentences.语法，句法：研究词或其它句了成分如何联合起来形成合乎语法的句子规则的学科〔prescriptivism〕The support or promotion of prescriptive grammar.规定主义：对规定语法的支持或推广〔be〕Traditional grammar requires the nominative form of the pronoun in the predicate of the verbbe : It is I (not me ); That must be they (not them ), and so forth. Even literate speakers of Modern English have found the rule difficult to conform to,but the stigmatization ofIt is me is by now so deeply lodged among the canons of correctness that there is little likelihood that the construction will ever be entirely acceptable in formal writing.Adherence to the traditional rule in informal speech, however, has come to sound increasingly pedantic,and begins to sound absurd when the verb is contracted, as inIt's we. · The traditional rule creates particular problems when the pronoun followingbe also functions as the object of a verb or preposition in a relative clause, as in It is not them/they that we have in mind when we talk about "crime in the streets" nowadays, where the plural pronoun serves as both the predicate ofis and the object of have. In this example, 57 percent of the Usage Panel preferred the nominative formthey, 33 percent preferred the accusativethem, and 10 percent accepted both versions.But H.W. Fowler, like other authorities, argued that the use of the nominative here is an error caused by "the temptation . . . to assume, perhaps from hearingIt is me corrected to It is I, that a subjective [nominative] case cannot be wrong after the verb to be. ” Writers can usually find a way to avoid this problem: They are not the ones we have in mind, We have someone else in mind, and so on. See Usage Note at I 1we 传统语法要求系动词谓语中的代词用主格形式be ： It is I （而不是 me ）； That must be they （而不是 them ），等等。 即使现代英语有文化的人也发现很难遵守这个规则，而It is me 的烙印现在已深刻地印入了判断是否正确的准则之中， 以致很少有可能使这种用法在正式书面语中被完全接受。但是在非正式讲话中奉行传统规则已经日益变得象在卖弄学问。并且当系动词被缩减时，就象在It's we 中一样，听起来反而象是不合语法的。 当代词跟在be 后面做动词宾语或做关系从句中的介语宾语时，传统的规则就象在 当我们谈到当今“街上的犯罪”时，他们不是我们心中所想的那些人， 句中复数代词同时充当is 的宾语和 have 的宾语。 在这个例子中57%的用法使用小组更喜欢用主格形式they， 33%更喜欢用宾格形式them， 而10%则两种都接受。但是象其他的权威一样，H.W.福勒争论道，在这里用主格是一个错误，它之所以错是因为“多半听到了It is me 都被改正成 It is I 而拿不定主意，以为主格的情况在动词 to be 后面不可能错。” 作家们常常能够找到一个办法来避免这个问题： 他们不是我们所想的人，我们脑子里想的是另一些人等等 参见 I1we〔who〕The traditional rules that determine the use ofwho and whom are relatively simple: who is used for a grammatical subject, where a nominative pronoun such as I or he would be appropriate, andwhom is used elsewhere. Thus, we writeThe actor who played Hamlet was there, sincewho stands for the subject of played Hamlet; andWho do you think is the best candidate? where who stands for the subject of is the best candidate. But we writeTo whom did you give the letter? sincewhom is the object of the preposition to; andThe man whom the papers criticized did not show up, sincewhom is the object of the verb criticized. ? Considerable effort and attention are required to apply the rules correctly in complicated sentences.To produce correctly a sentence such asI met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite, we must anticipate when we writewhom that it will function as the object of the verb extradite, several clauses distant from it.It is thus not surprising that writers from Shakespeare onward should often have interchangedwho and whom. And though the distinction shows no signs of disappearing in formal style,strict adherence to the rules in informal discourse might be taken as evidence that the speaker or writer is paying undue attention to the form of what is said, possibly at the expense of its substance.In speech and informal writingwho tends to predominate over whom; a sentence such asWho did John say he was going to support? will be regarded as quite natural, if strictly incorrect. By contrast, the use ofwhom where who would be required, as inWhom shall I say is calling? may be thought to betray a certain linguistic insecurity. ? When the relative pronoun stands for the object of a preposition that ends a sentence,whom is technically the correct form: the strict grammarian will insist onWhom (not who ) did you give it to? But grammarians since Noah Webster have argued that the excessive formality ofwhom in these cases is at odds with the relative informality associated with the practice of placing the preposition in final position and that the use of who in these cases should be regarded as entirely acceptable. ? The relative pronounwho may be used in restrictive relative clauses, in which case it is not preceded by a comma, or in nonrestrictive clauses, in which case a comma is required.Thus, we may say eitherThe scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized, where the clausewho discovers a cure for cancer indicates which scientist will be immortalized, orThe mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known, where the clausewho solved the four-color theorem adds information about a person already identified by the phrase the mathematician over there. ? Some grammarians have argued that onlywho and not that should be used to introduce a restrictive relative clause that identifies a person. This restriction has no basis either in logic or in the usage of the best writers;it is entirely acceptable to write eitherthe man that wanted to talk to you or the man who wanted to talk to you. ? The grammatical rules governing the use ofwho and whom apply equally to whoever and whomever. See Usage Note at else ,that ,whose 确定用法的传统规则who 和 whom 相对简单： who 语法上用作主语，同 I 或 he 等主格代词的位置相同， 而whom 用于别处。 这样，我们写The actor who played Hamlet was there （演哈姆雷特的演员在那边）， 因此who 代表的是 played Hamlet 的主语。 在句子Who do you think is the best candidate? （你认为谁是最好的候选人?）中 who 代表 is the best candidate 的主语。 但是我们说To whom did you give the letter? （你把信给谁了?）， 因为whom 是介词 to 的宾语； 在句子The man whom the papers criticized did not show up, （报纸上批评的那个人没有来）， 因为whom 是动词 criticized 的宾语 。在复杂的句子里，正确应用这些规则需要相当的努力和注意。正确地造出如I met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite （我遇到了政府曾努力让法国引渡的那个人）这样的句子， 在写whom 之前我们必须预知它将作动词 extradite 的宾语， 尽管两个词离得很远。这也就难怪自莎士比亚以来的作家经常把who 和 whom 交换使用了。 尽管在正式文体中两者区别仍然存在，但如果在非正式的交谈中严格地遵守这些规则会被认为说话者或作者可能不顾内容而过分注视说话的形式。在口语和非正式书面语中，who 趋向于代替 whom; 人们会认为象Who did John say he was going to support? （约翰说他将支持谁?）这样句子很自然，尽管严格来说它是不正确的。 相反，在应该用who 的地方用 whom 则显出一种语言上的不稳定， 如Whom shall I say is calling? （我说是谁在打电话?）。 当关系代词替代句尾的介词宾语时，whom 在理论上是正确的形势： 严格的语法坚持Whom （而不是 who ) did you give it to?（你把它给谁了？） 但从诺·韦伯斯特以来的语法学家认为whom 在这种情况下过分正式，而把介词放在句尾相对来说又不正式，这就有了矛盾，所以在这种情况下用 who 完全可以接受。 关系代词who 可以用在限定关系从句中，前面不要加逗号， 也可用在非限定关系从句中，则需要加逗号。所以我们既可以说The scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized （发现治愈癌症的方法的科学家将会因此而不朽）， 在此处从句who discovers a cure for cancer 指这样的科学家将会不朽， 也可以说The mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known （在那边的数学家非常出名，他解决了四色定理）， 从句who solved the four-color theorem 给已经由短语 the mathematician over there 确定了的人增加了一些有关他的信息。 有些语法学家认为只有who 而不是 that 可以连接表示人的限定性关系从句。 这种限制在逻辑上没有根据，在最优秀作家的用法中也未有根据；无论说the man that wanted to talk to you （想要跟你说话的那个人）或 the man who wanted to talk to you 都是完全可以接受的。 有关who 和 whom 的语法规则同样适用于 whoever 和 whomever 参见 else,that,whose〔morphosyntax〕The study of grammatical categories or linguistic units that have both morphological and syntactic properties.词素句法：对既有形态功能又有句法功能的语法种类或语言单位的研究〔equal〕It has been argued thatequal is an absolute term— two quantities either are or are not equal—and hence cannot be qualified as to degree.Therefore one cannot logically speak ofa more equal allocation of resources among the departments. However, this usage was accepted by 71 percent of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey.What is more, objection to the usage betrays a widespread but questionable assumptionthat it is in mathematics and logic that we find the model of accuracy most appropriate to the everyday use of language,a supposition that also underlies traditional grammatical discussions of words such asunique, parallel, and center. According to this account,the "precise" or "literal" meaning ofequal is realized in the use of the equal sign in an arithmetic expression such as 5 + 2 = 7; and the ordinary-language uses of the term,though they may be permissible,represent "loose" or "imprecise" extensions of that sense.But in fact the mathematical concept of equality is a poor model for using the wordequal to describe relations between things in the world. As applied to such things,statements of equality are always relative to an implicit standard of tolerance.When someone saysThe two boards are of equal length, we assume that the equality is reckoned to some order of approximation determined by the context;if we did not,we would be required always to usenearly equal when speaking of the dimensions of physical objects. What is more,we often want to predicate equality of things that do not admit of quantitative measurement,as when we sayThe college draft was introduced in an effort to make the teams in the National Football League as equal as possible, orThe candidates for the job should all be given equal consideration. In all such cases,equality is naturally a gradient notionand so is amenable to modification in degree.This much is evident from the existence of the wordunequal. The prefixun- attaches only to gradient adjectives: we sayunmanly but not unmale; and the worduneven can be applied to a surface (whose evenness may be a matter of degree) but not to a number (whose evenness is an either-or affair). ·The adverbequally is generally regarded as redundant when used in combination with as, and the following examples employingequally as were termed unacceptable by 63 percent of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey: 单词equal 一向被认为是一个很绝对的词语—— 两个数量要么相同要么不同——这样就不能有程度上的差别。所以，如果有人说在各部门间对资源更公平的分配 ，那么就不合逻辑了。 但是这种用法在早先的用法调查中被百分之七十一用法使用小组的人接受。而且，对这种用法的反对体现出了一种很流行但却值得怀疑的假设，那就是我们从数学和逻辑中得出适用于日常语言准确性的实例，而这种假设也可从我们对一些词，如unique，parallel 和 center 传统的语法讨论中体现出来。 根据这个解释，equal “准确”或“书面”的意思则是由在算术表达式，如5+2=7中所运用的相同的符号而表达清楚的； 而该词在日常语言中的用法，虽然被允许，但却代表了其含意“松散”或“不严谨”的引申。但是实际上用数学概念上的相等来运用equal 这个词描述世上各种事物之间的关系是一个很差劲的例子。 当该词应用于生活中的事物时，相等的观念往往与暗含的容忍相关联。当有人说两块木板同样长 时， 我们会认为由于上下文的关系，相等可以被看作大约近似；如果我们不这样想，那么当我们谈到物体的尺寸时，就要经常使用nearly equal 。 另外，我们常常会预测和数量无关的事物的相同性，比如我们会说，引入大学的要求是为了使全国足球联合会中的各队尽可能平等 ， 或者应给予该项工作的应征者同等的考虑 。 在所有这些例子中，相等是个可变化的概念，所以可在程度有所不同。Unequal 这个词的存在就是很好的证明。 un- 这个前缀只附加于有程序变化的形容词， 我们说unmanly 但不说 unmale ； 而uneven 这个词只能用于某物的表面（其平坦可有程度上的差别）， 而不能用于数目（数目只能说相等或不相等）。Equally 这一副词在与 as 连用时通常被认为是多余的， 在早先的用法调查中，以下这些使用equally as 的句子遭到百分之六十三使用小组的人反对： 〔adessive〕Of, relating to, or being the grammatical case expressing means, as Finnishpuhumalla "by speaking, while speaking.” 方法格的：表示“方法、手段”的语法格的、与方法格有关的或是方法格的，如芬兰语puhumalla “用说的方式，说话时” 〔morphophonemics〕(used with a pl. verb)The changes in pronunciation undergone by allomorphs of morphemes as they are modified by neighboring sounds, as the plural allomorphs incat-s, dog-s, box-es, or as they are modified for grammatical reasons in the course of inflection or derivation, as house versus to house and housing. （与复数动词连用）语态音位学：读音变化，由词素邻近的词音修饰带来的词素变体而产生，比如cat-s,dog-s,box-es 中的复数变体，或者当它们由于语法原因中的词尾变化或派生而受到限制，如 house 不同于 to house 和 housing 〔prescriptivist〕One who supports or promotes prescriptive grammar.规定主义者：支持或提倡规定主义语法的人〔honorific〕A title, phrase, or grammatical form conveying respect, used especially when addressing a social superior.敬语，尊称：用于表达敬意的头衔，短语或语法形式，尤指称呼社会层次较高的人〔allative〕Of, relating to, or being the grammatical case expressing motion toward a place, as Finnishstadionille "to the stadium.” 向格的：表示“向某地移动；趋向”的语法格的、与向格有关的或是向格的，如芬兰语stadionille “向体育场” 〔langue〕Language viewed as a system including vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation of a particular community.语言：被看作由特定人群使用的包括单词、语法和发音的语言系统〔former〕Grammarians have often insistedthat the phrasesthe former and the latter should be used only to refer to the first of two things and the second of two things, respectively: 语法家们经常坚持认为，the former 和 the latter 应该只用于分别替代两件事中的第一件和第二件： 〔what〕Whenwhat is the subject of a clause, it may be construed as singular or plural, depending on the sense.It is singular when taken as the equivalent ofthat which or the thing which, as inI see what seems to be a dead tree; and it is plural when it is taken as the equivalent ofthose which or the things which, as inHe sometimes makes what seem to be gestures of aloofness. ? When awhat clause is itself the subject of a sentence, it may be construed as singular or plural,but the conditions governing this choice are somewhat more complicated.In general, awhat clause will be taken as a plural when the clause contains an explicit indication of its own plurality. There are two principal cases.First, the clause is plural ifwhat is the subject of the clause and the verb of the clause is itself plural: What seem to be two dead trees are blocking the road. What most surprise me are the inflammatory remarks at the end of his article. If the verb in thewhat clause does not anticipate the plural sense of the predicate in this way, a singular verb is generally used in the main clause as well,though the plural is sometimes found:What truly commands respect is (sometimes are ) a large navy and a resolute foreign policy. Second, thewhat clause is treated as plural when its predicate contains a plural noun phrase that unambiguously establishes the plurality of the clause as a whole, as inWhat traditional grammarians called "predicates" are called "verb phrases" by modern linguists. What the Romans established as military outposts were later to become important trading centers. In the absence of explicit plural marking of either of these types in a subjectwhat clause, the clause is usually treated as singular for the purposes of agreement, regardless of the sense:What she held in her lap was four kittens. What the apparent diamonds turned out to be was paste. In some cases, however, a clause withwhat as the subject may be treated as singular or plural, depending on a subtle distinction of sense. InWhat excite him most are money and power, the implication is that money and power are distinct elements; inWhat excites him most is money and power, the implication is that money and power are taken as constituting a single entity.See Usage Note at which 当what 作为从句中的主语时， 它既可被当作单数也可以为复数，这取决于词义。当被看作是that which 或 the thing which 时它就是单数， 如在I see what seems to be a dead tree（我看到个象棵死树的物体）” 这句话中； 当它被用作those which 或 the things which 的对应词时它是复数， 如在He sometimes makes what seem to be gestures of aloofness（他有时做一些似乎很超然的手势） 中。 当what 从句本身是句子的主语时， 它可被当作单数或复数，但决定这种选择的条件略为复杂些。总体上说，what 从句的含有对其数性明确指示时，它就可以将当作复数。 这有两种最主要的情况：首先，如果what 是从句的主语而该从句的谓语动词本身是复数，从句就是复数： What seem to be two dead trees are blocking the road.（象两棵死树的物体挡着路）； What mostsurprise me are the inflammatory remarks at the end of his article.（最令我吃惊的是他文章结尾处的煽动性言词） 。 如果what 从句的谓语动词并不预示谓语是复数， 主句中通常也用单数动词，尽管有时也可以发现有复数：What truly commands respect is（有时 are ) a large navy and a resolute foreign policy（真正博得尊敬的是强大的海军和坚定的外交政策） ； 其次what 从句在其谓语含有复数名词短语，并且其明显可建立整个从句的复数性时是被当作复数的， 如在What traditional grammarians called "predicates" are called "verb phrases" by modern linguists.（那些传统语法家所称为“谓语”的则被现代语言学家称作“动词短语”） What the Romans established as military outpostswere later to become important trading centers.（那些罗马人设为军事前哨基地的地方后来成为了重要的贸易中心）。 当what 从句主语缺乏这两类明确表示复数性的标记时， 从句通常为了一致性而不顾及词义地被当作单数：What she held in her lap was four kittens.（她抱在膝盖上的是四只小猫）。 What the apparent diamonds turned out to bewas paste.（那些看上去象真的钻石结果却是人造宝石） 。 然而，在一些情况下，以what 作主语的从句可被当单数或复数，取决于语义上微妙的差异。 在What excite him most are money and power（最让他兴奋的是金钱和权力）， 这句话中暗含着金钱和权力是不同的成分； 在What excites him most is money and power（最让他兴奋的是金钱和权力）， 这句话中暗含着金钱和权力是作为构成一个单一整体的成分 参见 which〔model〕a model of generative grammar; a model of an atom; an economic model.衍生语法的图解；原子图解；经济模式〔gender〕Traditionally,gender has been used primarily to refer to the grammatical categories of "masculine,” "feminine,” and "neuter"; but in recent years the word has become well established in its use to refer to sex-based categories,as in phrases such asgender gap and the politics of gender. This usage is supported by the practice of many anthropologists,who reservesex for reference to biological categories, while usinggender to refer to social or cultural categories. According to this rule,one would sayThe effectiveness of the medication appears to depend on the sex (not gender ) of the patient, butIn peasant societies, gender (not sex ) roles are likely to be more clearly defined. This distinction is useful in principle,but it is by no means widely observed,and considerable variation in usage occurs at all levels.传统地，gender 已被主要用来指“阳性”、“阴性”和“中性”的语法类别， 自近年来，这个单词已被人们普遍接受为指基于性别区分的类别，例如在词组性别差异 和 性别政治 中， 这种用法被许多人类学家所支持，他们把sex 局限为生物类别， 而用gender 来指社会和文化方面的类别。 根据这种规则，我们应该说医疗的有效性似乎取决于 （而不是 gender ） 病人的性别， 但是在农业国家中，性别的 （不是 sex ） 角色易于有更清楚的定义。 这种区分在原则上是有用的，但无法被人们广泛注意，而且大量变体出现于在不同水平的用法中〔and〕Together with or along with; in addition to; as well as. Used to connect words, phrases, or clauses that have the same grammatical function in a construction.和；与；及；同；又；也：和或同；又；也。用来连接具有相同语法功能的单词，短语或从句〔wish〕 Both usages are likely to sound stilted in informal style, however. ?Whenwish precedes a subordinate clause containing a contrary-to-fact statement, strict grammatical correctness requires that one usewere rather than was : I wish I were (not was ) lighter on my feet. Many writers continue to insist on this rule,but precedent for using the indicativewas in such clauses can be found in the works of many writers, including King Alfred and Jonathan Swift. See Usage Note at if ,want 但这两种用法在非正式文体中会显得不自然。当wish 后面接一个与事实相反的陈述句作从属分句时， 按严格的语法来说，应在从句中用were 代替 was ： I wish I were （不是 was ) lighter on my feet（多希望我能步履轻盈。） 许多作家仍坚持这条规则，但在从句中用表陈述的was 可在许多作家包括金·阿尔弗雷德和约纳森·斯威夫特的作品中找到先例 参见 if,want〔locative〕Of, relating to, or being a grammatical case in certain inflected languages that indicates place in or on which or time at which, as in Latindomī, "at home.” 表位置的：属于、关于或成为某曲折变化语言中表示地点或时间的语法格的，如拉丁文ｄｏｍｉ 指“在家” 〔essive〕Of, relating to, or being the grammatical case indicating a state of being or an existence in a particular capacity or state in some languages, as in Finnishprofessorina, "as a professor.” 存在格的：在某些语言中表示“存在的状态，存在于特定空间，存在于特定状态”的语法格的、与存在格有关的或是存在格的，如芬兰语professorina “作为教授” 〔endocentric〕Of or relating to a group of syntactically related words, at least one of which is functionally equivalent to the function of the whole group. For example, the nountable in the noun phrase the old table is endocentric because it has the same grammatical function as the whole noun phrase. 向心的：造句上相关字语的，或与其相关的；至少其中有一字在机能上要与整体的机能一致。例如，在名词词组the old table（旧桌子） 中的名词 table 就是一个向心字语，因为其和整个名词词组具有相同的语法功能 〔analogy〕The process by which words and morphemes are re-formed or created on the model of existing grammatical patterns in a language, as Modern Englishname : names for Old English nama : naman on the model of nouns like stone : stones. 类推：一种语言的单词和语素在语言的现存语法模式基础上改变构成或产生，如现代英语的name：names 代替了古英语的 nama：naman ，这是在名词如 stone：stones 的模式上产生的 〔trivium〕The lower division of the seven liberal arts in medieval schools, consisting of grammar, logic, and rhetoric.三文科：中世纪学校的七种文科的较低一级划分，包括语法、逻辑学和修辞学〔idiom〕The specific grammatical, syntactic, and structural character of a given language.特别语言现象：某种语言中特别的语法、句式和结构上的特点〔if〕With all deference to the traditional rules governing the use of the subjunctive,it should be noted that a survey of the prose of reputable writers over the past 200 years would reveal a persistent tendency to use the indicativewas where the traditional rule would require the subjunctive were. A sentence beginningIf I was the only boy in the world, while not strictly correct, is wholly unremarkable. But the corresponding practice of using the subjunctive in place of the indicative may be labeled a hypercorrection. ·In spoken Englishthere is a growing tendency to usewould have in place of the subjunctive in contrary-to-fact clauses, as inif I would have been the President, but this usage is still widely considered incorrect.See Usage Note at doubt ,should ,wish 在与指导虚拟语气使用方法的传统规则相冲突的一系列不同用法中，我们应注意到一项对过去200年散文作家的调查显示，在传统语法要求使用虚拟式的were 的情况下，有一种持久的使用直陈式 was 的趋势。 一句用假如我是世界上唯一的男孩 开头的句子不会引起人们的注意。 而一定要把其中的直陈式换成虚拟式就显得矫正过了头。在英语口语中，在与事实相反的从句中，使用would have 一词的趋势有所增加， 例如如果我会是总统， 但这种用法仍然被大多数人认为是不正确的 参见 doubt,should,wish〔help〕Some grammarians condemn this usageon the ground thathelp in this sense means "avoid" and logically requires a negative.But the expression is a well-established idiom.See Usage Note at cannot 有些语法家对这种用法提出了批评意见，理由是help 在这个句子里表示“避免”的意思， 所以从逻辑上讲应用否定形式。但是这种表达已经成为一种被广泛接受的惯用法了 参见 cannot〔pidgin〕A simplified form of speech that is usually a mixture of two or more languages, has a rudimentary grammar and vocabulary, is used for communication between groups speaking different languages, and is not spoken as a first or native language.混杂语；混杂行话：由两种或多种语言混合而成的一种简化的说话方式，语法和词汇较初等，被用于不同语言者进行交流，不作为第一语言或母语〔purty〕Purty is probably the most common American example of metathesis, a linguistic process in which two adjacent sounds are reversed in order.Metathesis in English often involves the consonantr and a vowel, since the phonetic properties ofr are so vowellike. For example,the wordthird used to be thrid, and bird, brid. By the same process,Englishpretty often came to be realized as purty in regional speech. Most such words stabilized because of the influence of printing and the resultant standardized spelling,butpurty for pretty has survived in regional American dialects. Purty 可能是美国换位词最普遍的一个例子， 换位是两个相邻的音在顺序上调换位置的语法过程。英语中的换位经常包括辅音r 和一个元音， 因为r 的语音属性是非常像元音的。 举个例子来说，单词third 过去曾是 thrid 及 bird和brid。 具有同样的过程，英语单词pretty 在区域性语言中常被渐渐地认作 purty。 大部分这样的单词固定下来是因为印刷的影响以及由此而产生的标准化拼写，但是代替pretty 的 purty 却在美国区域性的方言中存在下来了 〔dative〕Of, relating to, or being the grammatical case that in some Indo-European languages, such as Latin and Russian, as well as in some non-Indo-European languages, marks the recipient of action and is used with prepositions or other function words corresponding in meaning to Englishto and for. 与格的：属于、关于或成为一些印欧语系语言的语法格，如拉丁语和俄语，还用在一些非印欧系语言中，标明行为的接受者，并和介词或其他功能词连用，在意义上相当于英语的to 和 for 〔we〕When the pronoun is followed by an appositive noun phrase,the formus is frequently encountered where grammatical correctness would require we, as inUs owners (properly We owners ) will have something to say about the contract. Less frequently,we is substituted for us, as inFor we students, it's a no-win situation. Both usages should be avoided.See Usage Note at be ,I 1当代词后跟同位的名词短语时，us 常常被使用，但正确的语法要求使用 we， 如在Us owners （正确的应是 We owners ) will have something to say about the contract（我们这些所有者关于此合同会有些话讲）， we 不太多见被用来代替 us， 如在For we students, it's a no-win situation（对我们学生来说，这是一个决无胜算的情形）。 两种用法都应避免 参见 be,I1〔that〕The standard rule isthatthat should be used only to introduce a restrictive (or "defining") relative clause, which serves to identify the entity being talked about;in this useit should never be preceded by a comma.Thus, we sayThe house that Jack built has been torn down, where the clausethat Jack built tells which house was torn down, orI am looking for a book that is easy to read, wherethat is easy to read tells what kind of book is desired. Onlywhich is to be used with nonrestrictive (or "nondefining") clauses, which give additional information about an entity that has already been identified in the context;in this use,which is always preceded by a comma. Thus, we sayThe students in Chemistry 10 have been complaining about the textbook, which (not that ) is hard to follow. The clausewhich is hard to follow does not indicate which text is being complained about; even if it were omitted,we would know that the phrasethe textbook refers to the text in Chemistry 10. The use ofthat in nonrestrictive clauses like this, though once common in writing and still frequent in speech,is best avoided in formal style. ·Some grammarians have argued that symmetry requires thatwhich should be used only in nonrestrictive clauses, asthat is to be used only in restrictive clauses. Thus, they suggest that we should avoid sentences such asI need a book which will tell me all about city gardening, where the clausewhich will tell me all about city gardening indicates which sort of book is needed. Such use ofwhich is useful where two or more relative clauses are joined by and or or, as inIt is a philosophy in which the common man may find solace and which many have found reason to praise. Which is also preferred to introduce a restrictive relative clausewhen the preceding phrase itself contains athat, as inI can only give you that which I don't need (not that that I don't need ) or We want to assign only that book which will be most helpful (preferred tothat book that will be most helpful ). · That may be omitted in a relative clause when the subject of the clause is different from the referent of the phrase preceding the clause. Thus, we may say eitherthe book that I was reading or the book I was reading, where the subject of the clause (I ) is not the referent of the phrase the book. Omission ofthat in these cases has sometimes been described as incorrect, but the practice is extremely common and has ample precedent in reputable writing. ·There have also been occasional objections to the omission ofthat in its use to introduce a subordinate clause, as inI think we should try again. But this usage is entirely idiomatic and is in fact favored with some of the verb phrases that can introduce such clauses:thus, one would more normally write 标准规则中，that 应只被用于引导限定性（或“确定的”）关系从句， 这些从句用于明确正被谈论的实体；在这种情况下，前面决不能有逗号。因此，我们说杰克建的房子已经拆毁了 ， 在这里，从句杰克所建的 指明哪幢房子被拆毁了， 或者我正在找一本易读的书 ， 在这里，易读的 指明哪类书是需要的。 只有which 用于非限定性（或“不确定的”）从句中， 为已经在上下文中定义的实体提供附加信息；在此用法中，which 之前总有逗号。 因此，我们说化学10班的学生一直在抱怨这课本，实在 （不是 that ) 是太难懂了 。 从句which is hard to follow 并不指明哪一课本被抱怨； 即使它被省略，我们也知道the textbook 指化学10班的课本。 That 象这样用于非限定性从句中， 虽然在写作中曾很普遍而且在口语中依然频繁出现，但在正式文体中最好避免使用。一些语法学家认为对称性要求which 应只用于非限定性从句中， 就象that 只用于限定性从句中。 因此，他们建议我们应该避免诸如我需要一本关于城市园艺的书 这样的句子， 这里从句which will tell me all about city gardening 指明需要何种书。 当两个或多个关系从句被and 或 or 连接时， which 的这种用法很有用， 如是哲学使普通人找到慰藉并使许多人有理由去称颂。 Which 也用作引导限定性关系从句，在当前置短语中含有that 时， 如我只能给你我不需要的东西 （不是 that that I don't need )或 我们只想分发那本最用的书 （好于that book that will be most helpful )。 当从句主语与从句前短语所指不一致时，that 在关系从句中可以省略。 因此，我们可以说the book that I was reading 或者 the book I was reading 。 在这里，从句主语(I )和短语 the book 的主语不同。 在这些情况下，that 的省略有时被认为是错误的， 但是这在实际中极普遍而且在规范写作中有充分的先例。对于that 用于引导从句时被省略偶然持有异议， 如在我认为我们应该再试一次 中。 但这种用法完全符合语法而且实际上有一些引导这样从句的短语支持；因此，可以正常应用 〔desinence〕A grammatical ending; an inflection.词尾，后缀：语法的结尾；屈折变化〔period〕Perhaps more than once one may have wonderedwhy the wordperiod has the sense "punctuation mark ( . )” as well as some of its other senses having to do with time.The answer to this question lies in the senses of the Greek wordperiodos from which our word is descended. Periodos, made up of peri-, "around,” and hodos, "way,” meant such things as "going round, way round, going round in a circle, circuit,”and with regard to time "cycle or period of time.”The word also meant "the period of menstruation.”In rhetoric it referred to "a group of words organically related in grammar and sense.”The Greek word was adopted into Latin asperihodos with only its rhetorical sense and one other sense,but in Medieval Latin it reacquired senses it had in Greek,such as "cycle,” and acquired a new sense,"a punctuation mark used at the end of a rhetorical period.”Although this sense is recorded in Medieval Latin,it is not recorded in English until 1609.But the wordperiod had entered Middle English from Medieval Latin and Old French, first being recorded in a work written around 1425in the sense "a cycle of recurrence of a disease.”或许任何人都会不止一次的发出疑问，为什么period 有“标点符号（。）”的意思， 同时其它意思与时间有关。此问的答案来自我们的单词源自的希腊语单词periodos 的意思。 Periodos ，由意为“周围”的 peri- 和意为“方式”的 hodos 组成， 该词意味着“围绕…走，围绕…的路，转圈走，围绕，”同时也指时间，意为“一段时间或时间周期”。此词也意为“经期”。在修辞学中指“一组在语法和词意上有机相连的词。”这个希腊词作为perihodos 被拉丁文所采用， 仅带有修辞和一个其他的意思，但在中世纪拉丁语中它重新得到了它在希腊语中的意思，例如“周期”，后来又得到一个新的意思，即“用于修辞部分末尾的标点符号”。尽管此意在中世纪拉丁语中有记载，但直到1609年才在英语中有记载。而period 从中世纪拉丁文和古法语中进入中世纪英语， 并首次记载于约1425年所著的作品中，意为“疾病发作的周期”〔ablaut〕A vowel change, characteristic of Indo-European languages, that accompanies a change in grammatical function; for example,i, a, u in sing, sang, sung. Also called gradation 元音交替：元音交替，为印欧语系各语言的特征，其伴随语法功能的变化；如i，a，u 在 Sing，Sang，Sung 也作 gradation〔dialect〕A regional variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists:地方话：语音、语法或词汇均有区别的地区性语言变体，特别是存在于标准文学语言或文化口语模式的口语变体： |
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